Digitized  by  tlie  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2007  witli  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/europeansclioolsoOOklemiala 


International  ^htration  Btxm 

EDITED   BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


Volume  XII. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES. 

Edited  by  W.  T.  Harris. 


IT  is  proposed  to  publish,  under  the  above  title,  a  library  tor  teachers 
and  school  managers,  and  text-books  for  normal  classes.  The  aim  will 
be  to  provide  works  of  a  useful  practical  character  in  the  broadest  sense. 
The  following  conspectus  will  show  the  ground  to  be  covered  by  the  series : 

I. — History  of  Education,  (a.)  Original  systems  as  ex- 
pounded by  their  founders,  (b.)  Critical  histories  which  set  forth  the 
customs  of  the  past  and  point  out  their  advantages  and  defects,  explain 
ing  the  grounds  of  their  adoption,  and  also  of  their  final  disuse. 

II. — Educational  Criticism,  (a.)  The  noteworthy  arraign- 
ments which  educational  reformers  have  put  forth  against  existing  sys 
tems :  these  compose  the  classics  of  pedagogy,  (b.)  The  critical  histories 
above  mentioned. 

III.— Systematic  Treatises  on  the  Theory  of  Edu- 
cation, (a.)  Works  written  from  the  historical  standpoint;  these, 
for  the  most  part,  show  a  tendency  to  justify  the  traditional  course  of 
study  and  to  defend  the  prevailing  methods  of  instruction,  (b.)  Works 
written  from  critical  standpoints,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  revolu- 
tionary in  their  tendency. 

IV. — The  Art  of  Education.  (a.)  Works  on  instruction 
and  discipline,  and  the  practical  details  of  the  school-room,  (b.)  Works 
on  the  organization  and  supervision  of  schools. 

Practical  insight  into  the  educational  methods  in  vogue  can  not  be 
attained  without  a  knowledge  of  the  process  by  which  they  have  come  to 
be  established.  For  this  reason  it  is  proposed  to  give  special  prominence 
to  the  history  of  the  systems  that  have  prevailed. 

Again,  since  history  is  incompetent  to  furnish  the  ideal  of  the  future, 
it  is  necessary  to  devote  large  space  to  works  of  educational  criticism. 
Criticism  is  the  purifying  process  by  which  ideals  are  rendered  clear  and 
potent,  so  that  progress  becomes  possible. 

History  and  criticism  combined  make  possible  a  theory  of  the  whole. 
For,  with  an  ideal  toward  which  the  entire  movement  tends,  and  an  ac- 
count of  the  phases  that  have  appeared  in  time,  the  connected  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  can  be  shown,  and  all  united  into  one  system. 

Lastly,  after  the  science,  comes  the  practice.  The  art  of  education  is 
treated  in  special  works  devoted  to  the  devices  and  technical  details  use- 
ful in  the  school-room. 

It  is  believed  that  the  teacher  does  not  need  authority  so  much  as  in 
sight  in  matters  of  education.  When  he  understands  the  theory  of  edu- 
cation and  the  history  of  its  growth,  and  has  matured  his  own  point 
of  view  by  careful  study  of  the  critical  literature  of  education,  then  he  is 
competent  to  select  or  invent  such  practical  devices  as  are  best  adapted 
to  his  own  wants. 

The  series  will  contain  works  from  European  as  well  as  American 
authors,  and  will  be  under  the  editorship  of  W.  T.  Harris,  A.  M.,  LL.  D 


Vol.  [.  The   Philosophy  of  Education*    By  Johann  Karl  Fried- 

KIOH    EOSENKRANZ.       $1.50. 

Vol.  II.  A  History  of  £dncation.    By  Professor  F.  V.  N.  Painter, 

of  Roanoke,  Virginia.     $1.50. 
Vol.  III.  The   Rise    and    Early  Constitution   of   Universities. 

With  a  Sur\-ey  of  Mediaeval  Education.  By  S.  S.  LArRiE,  LL.  D., 
Profeesor  of  the  Institutes  and  History  of  Education  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.    $1.50. 

Vol.  IV.  The  Ventilation  and  \Varn»ing  of  S«hooI  Buildinfi^s. 
By  Gilbert  B.  Mokkison,  Teacher  of  Physics  and  ChemL'<try  in  Kan- 
sas City  High  School.    75  cents. 

Vol.  V.  The  Education  of  Man.  By  Friedrich  Froebel.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  and  annotated  by  "W.  N.  Hailmann,  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Schools  at  La  Porte,  Indiana.     $1.50. 

Vol.  VI.  Elementary  Psychology  and  Education.  By  Joseph 
Baldwin,  Plincipal  of  the  Sam  Houston  State  Normal  School,  Huuts- 
ville,  Texas.    $1.50. 

Vol.  VII.  The  Senses  and  the  Will.  Observations  concerning  the 
Mental  Development  of  the  Human  Being  in  the  l?irst  Years  of  Life. 
By  W.  Preyer,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena,  'i'ranslated  from 
the  original  German,  by  H.  W.  Brown,  Teaclier  in  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Worcester,  Mass.    Part  I  of  The  Mind  of  the  Child.     $1.50. 

Vol.  VIII.  Memory.  What  it  is  and  how  to  improve  it.  By  David 
Kay,  F.  E.  G.  S.     $1.50. 

Vol.  IX.  The  Development  of  the  Intellect.  Observations  con- 
cerning the  Mental  Development  of  the  Human  Being  in  the  Fiist 
Years  of  Life.  By  W.  Preyer,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena. 
Translated  from  the  original  German,  by  H.  W.  Brown,  Teacher  in 
the  State  Normal  School  at  Worcester,  Mass.  Part  II  of  The  Mind 
OF  THE  Child.     $1.50. 

Vol.  X.  How  to  Study  Geography.  '  By  Francis  W.  Parker. 
Prepared  for  tlie  Professional  Training  C'lass'^of  the  Cook  County  Nor- 
mal School.     $1.50. 

Vol.  XI.  Education  in  the  United  States.  Its  History  from  the 
Eiirliest  Settlements.  By  Eichaed  G.  Boone,  A.  M.,  Professor  of 
Pedagogy  in  Indiana  University.     $1.50. 

Vol.  XII.  European  Schools.'.  Or  what  I  saw  in  the  Schools  of  Ger- 
many, France,  Austiia,  and  Switzerland.  By  L.  E.  Kt.emm,  Ph.  I)., 
Author  of  "  Chips  from  a  Teacher's  Workshop,''  and  numerous  school- 
books.     $2.00.    . 

Vol.  XIII.  Practical  Hints  for  the  Teachers  of  Public  Schools. 

By  George  Howland,  Superintendent  ot'  th^  Chicago  Schools.     $1.00. 

Vol.  XIV.  Pestalozzi :  His  Life  and  Work.  By  Eoger  De  Guimps. 
Authorized  translation  from  the  second  French  edition,  by  J.  Eussell, 
B.  A.,  Assistant  Master  in  University  College  School,  London.  With 
en  lutrodiictiou  by  Ecv.  R.  H.  Quick,  M.  A.     $1.50. 

Vol.  XV.  School  Supervision.    By  J.  L.  Pickard,  LL.  D.    $1.00. 

Vol.  XVI.  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe.  By  Helene 
Lange,  Berlin.  Translated  and  accompanied  by  Comparative  Statis- 
tics, by  L.  E.  Klemm,  Ph.  D.     $1.00. 

Vol.  XVII.  Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.  By  Robert  He- 
BERT  Quick,  M.  A.  Trin.  Coll.^  Cambridge,  Formerly  Assistant  Master 
at  Harrow,  and  Lecturer  on  tne  History  of  PMucation  at  Cambridge, 
late  Vicar  ofSedbergh.  -Only  authorized  edition  of  the  work  as  rewrit- 
ten in  1890.     $1.50. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES 


EUROPEAI^r    SCHOOLS 


OE  WHAT  I  SAW  IN 

THE  SCHOOLS  OF  GEKMANY,  FKAKCE 

AUSTRIA,  AND  SWITZERLAND 


BY 

L.  R.  KLEMM,  Ph.  D. 

AUTHOR  OF  "chips  FROM  A  TEACHER'S  WORKSHOP" 
AND  NUMEROUS  SCHOOL-BOOKS 


NEW  YORK 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 

1891 


f6. 


Copyright,  1889, 
By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 


LB 


L-.        RARY 

£TAiL  :..:ir.?Ai?'^v'00L 

MANUAL  ASTS  /NO  iioi^:  tCONO: 
SANTA  B.'.R.^^RA,  C*"-  ^    ■>" 


\bC 


EDITOE'S  PREFACE. 


The  editor  presents  this  volume  of  the  "  International 
Education  Series"  with  some  degree  of  confidence  that 
the  reader  will  find  it  the  first  attempt  of  its  kind  yet 
made  that  proves  of  real  help  in  the  school-room.    Al- 
though much  has  been  written  and  published  regarding 
European  schools,  yet,  on  the  whole,  teachers  have  found 
little  profit  in  reading  it.     Vague'  encomiums-  on  the  ex- 
cellence of  methods,  sweeping  criticisms  on  features  that 
did  not  suit  the  taste  of  the  writer,  minute  accounts  of 
governmental  provision  for  education,  rules  and  regula- 
tions, arrangements  for  supervision — all  these  things  have 
J  wearied  the  reader  without  furnishing  him  new  ideas  that 
J  he  could  use  to  advantage.     Nor  have  the  descriptions 
^  of  buildings,  statistics  of  attendance,  illiteracy  and  such 
\  matters,  although  sometimes  useful  to  stir  up  emulation, 
p,^  ^satisfied  him.    Volumes  containing  immense  masses  of  in- 
•^  formation  compiled  from  programmes  and  official  regula- 
tions have  been  of  still  less  use.    The  teacher  turns  away 
--Irom  such  things,  and  asks  for  a  book  tliat  will  show  him 
--iow  to  do  his  work  of  instruction  in  another  and  better 
Q^manner  than  his  own.    He  wishes  to  hear  of  methods, 
CQbut  not  in  a  vague,  general  way.     Let  the  author  show 
Q^iim  teachers  and  pupils  at  work,  and  report  enough  of  the 

Q- 


Vi  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

essential  details  to  furnish  him  hint^  that  will  assist  him 
in  his  own  efforts. 

The  lively  pictures  which  Karl  von  Eaumer  gives  of 
the  work  of  Pestalozzi  and  his  pupils  are  remembered  by 
us  as  model  reports  of  school-work.  They  enable  us  still 
to  see  with  our  own  eyes,  as  it  were,  the  method  of  the  fa- 
mous pedagogue,  with  its  merits  and  defects  clearly  por- 
trayed. 

This  book  of  Dr.  Klemm  is  not  intended  as  a  critical 
estimate  of  the  school  systems  of  the  countries  visited.  It 
does  not  attempt  to  give  the  average  school  nor  to  exhaust 
the  range  of  good  and  poor  schools.  The  author  wisely 
avoids  the  inferior  schools,  and  adopts  the  sensible  plan  of 
seeking  the  best  and  reporting  only  what  he  finds  note- 
worthy. He  limits  himself,  for  the  most  part,  to  what  is 
useful  in  the  class-room.  He  takes  pains  to  express  his 
preferences  quite  frankly,  and  does  not  expect  that  the 
reader  will  agree  with  him  on  all  occasions  as  to  the  value 
of  the  devices  that  he  describes.  The  reader  will,  how- 
ever, thank  him  for  his  candor,  even  when  he  can  not  ac- 
cept his  guidance,  and  feel  sure  that  a  less  enthusiastic 
observer  would  not  prove  so  accommodating  in  lending 
the  use  of  his  note-book. 

The  author's  readiness  with  the  pencil  assists  us  in 
seeing  many  important  pieces  of  appai'atus  and  many 
processes  of  instruction  that  we  should  fail  to  understand 
from  a  merely  verbal  description.  This  is  noticeable  es- 
pecially in  his  account  of  the  industrial  and  manual- 
training  movements. 

He  draws  attention  to  the  difference  between  French 
and  German  aims  in  this  field  of  education,  and  states 
very  clearly  that  the  one  seeks  to  find  a  direct  preparation 
for  the  trades  in  its  industrial  schools,  while  the  other 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vii 

wishes  to  get  what  is  educative  to  the  pupil  from  its 
manual  work. 

What  is  said  of  instruction  in  drawing  is  very  interest- 
ing, but  it  leaves  the  reader  in  doubt  whether  the  educa- 
tors in  some  of  the  countries  of  Europe  are  not  looking 
in  a  wrong  direction  for  the  chief  object.  For  it  is  not 
the  question  of  drawing  from  the  flat,  or  from  objects,  that 
reaches  the  essential  point  in  the  educational  value  of 
drawing.  This  concerns  the  beauty  of  what  is  drawn  or 
pictured,  rather  than  how  it  is  copied.  If  ugly  shapes  are 
drawn,  either  from  real  objects  or  from  other  representa- 
tions, the  taste  of  the  pupil  is  debased.  So,  too,  if  the 
pupil  is  allowed  to  make  ugly-shaped  objects  in  wood,  like 
those  wooden  spoons,  boot-jacks,  and  mallets  shown  us  as 
products  of  the  Slojd  schools,  we  feel  sure  that  he  is  not 
on  the  way  to  a  profitable  industrial  career,  for  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world  will  not  receive  such  goods,  but  will 
prefer  the  more  graceful  articles  furnished  by  France  and 
Belgium.  If  instruction  in  drawing  lays  stress  on  the  re- 
production of  ornament  and  works  of  art  of  a  high  order 
of  taste,  it  will  secure  an  educative  result  of  universal 
utility.  The  tast'^  of  th^  pr.r'^"  "■"'"  ^"  "lo^fifprl,  and. 
whatever  the  line  of  industry  followed,  more  remuner- 
ative work  will  be  accomplished.  Pupils  that  copy  beau- 
tiful outlines  from  the  Aal  will  leani  a  more  valuable  les- 
son in  form  than  .iiose  who  dra^  .^different  objects  frera 
the  solid.  The  cuts  exiiibiting  B'rench  ai;ia  tJerliiau  woik 
in  drawing  and  mmual  traiiiing  are  for  these  reatons  vory 
instructive  to  the  reader  in  more  than  one  respect. 

A  large  portion  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  what  is  called 
"  objective  teaching."  This  includes  methods  of  illus- 
trating subjects,  and  ingenious  arrangements  for  arousing 
the  enthusiasm  of  pupils  to  work  out  and  realize  their 


viii  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

thoughts  in  deeds.  The  out-door  excursions,  described 
so  charmingly,  furnish  us  suggestive  hints  for  new  feat- 
ures in  our  own  school-work.  It  is  true  that  national 
peculiarity  go§s  for  much  in  the  way  of  determining  meth- 
ods of  school  management ;  but  each  nation  should  see  to 
it  that  suitable  means  are  invented  to  reach  all  desirable 
results. 

Anglo-Saxon  teachers  will  read  what  is  said  of  the 
great  Herbartian  movement  in  educational  theory  with 
wonder  and  curiosity.  The  idea  of  "  concentric  instruc- 
tion," with  Eobinson  Crusoe  for  the  center  of  interest ; 
the  glimpses  of  earnest  and  thorough  discussions  of  prin- 
ciples and  practice  in  the  light  of  the  subtle  psychology 
of  Herbart,  the  counter-movement  of  the  opposing  school 
of  philosophy — what  singular  phenomena  in  the  history 
of  education,  and  how  suggestive  of  the  originality  and 
thoroughness  of  the  German  mind ! 

Instructive  glances  at  the  education  of  women  for 
teachers  in  this  book  make  us  conscious  of  the  consider- 
able distance  that  separates  our  system  of  educational 
management  from  that  of  the  Continent  of  Europe.  Does 
it  seorn  lively  that  the  latter  has  begun  to  move  on  in  the 
diwi(:tioii.  v.e  ha^^i  uken,  and  thai  it  will  follow  us  in  giv- 
ing higher  education  to  girls,  and  af  len\  ard  place  women 
ill  charge  of  its  schools  a«  extengiveh  a?.  Americans  have 
(lutte  ? 

The  school  for  dullards  will  suggest  to  American  read- 
ers '-he  T-  ;t  liikaMo  educational  means  employed  in  the 
State  institutions  of  New  York,  Illinois,  and  some  other 
commonwealths,  for  feeble-minded  children.  The  methods 
used  in  those  establishments  are  so  skillful  and  so  highly 
suggestive  for  all  teachers  in  the  management  of  their 
dull  or  backward  pupils,  that  it  seems  surprising  that  we 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  ix 

do  not  often  see  in  our  educational  journals  such  de- 
scriptions of  their  processes  as  Dr.  Klemm  gives  of  the 
school  at  Elberfeld-Barmen.  The  trend  of  educational 
methods  is  toward  a  greater  care  for  the  weak  and  un- 
fortunate. The  missionary  spirit  is  more  and  more  mani- 
fested in  our  civilization.  While,  on  the  one  hand,  our 
institutions  make  the  possession  of  property  more  secure, 
on  the  other  hand  we  insist  more  and  more  that  the  period 
of  helpless  infancy  and  growing  youth  shall  be  devoted  to 
education  into  the  ideals  that  civilization  has  found  in- 
strumental to  spiritual  development.  Thus,  while  differ- 
ences of  wealth  remain  very  great,  no  youth  shall  be  de- 
barred by  reason  of  poverty  from  his  share  in  the  heritage 
of  culture.  He  shall  be  made  able  to  help  himself  in  the 
most  efficient  manner,  and  this  power  of  self-help  is  the 
best  gift  that  wealth  can  possibly  confer  on  him. 

W.  T.  Harkis. 
Concord,  Mass.,  July,  1889. 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE. 


This  book  is  not,  like  many  official  reports,  weighed 
down  with  statistical  data  and  ponderous  descriptions  of 
school  systems.  It  says  very  little  of  school  houses  and 
sites.  The  course  of  study  is  mentioned  only  when  it  is 
absolutely  necessary,  and  even  then  in  outlines  only.  The 
book  contains  observations  in  European  schools,  or  "  Chips 
from  Educational  Workshops."  The  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  offer  the  reader  truthful  delineations  of  the  pres- 
ent status  of  didactics  and  methodology  in  the  public 
schools  of  Germany,  France,  Austria,  and  Switzerland. 
Lessons  which  he  heard  are  sketched  as  faithfully  as  a 
quick  pencil  could  gather  and  the  memory  retain  them. 
Numerous  devices  in  use  in  Europe  are  offered  in  sketch 
illustrations,  and  copies  of  pupils'  work  where  they  could 
conveniently  be  used.  The  manual  training-schools  of 
Europe  are  shown  in  their  results ;  the  different  systems 
of  drawing  and  industrial  training  of  girls  are  compared. 
Each  branch  of  study  of  the  elementary  schools  is  repre- 
sented by  sketch-lessons,  and  successful  methods  of  teach- 
ing are  illustrated  by  verbatim  reproduction  of  model  les- 
sons. 

The  book  is  written  for  the  purpose  of  offering  a 
"  standard  of  measurement "  for  our  own  schools ;  a  state- 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  xi 

raent  of  what  is  done  in  the  schools  of  Europe,  and  how 
it  is  done.  If  it  should  succeed  in  disproving  the  opinion 
that  "  European  methods  of  teaching  can  not  be  adapted 
to  American  schools,"  the  author  will  be  most  happy. 
This  fallacious  opinion  is  upheld  very  obstinately.  It  is 
heard  from  the  rostrum,  found  in  the  educational  press, 
urged  in  season  and  out  of  season  ;  but,  since  it  is  merely 
an  opinion,  it  can  be  disproved  by  facts  alone,  and  they 
are  already  furnished  by  hundreds  of  excellent  teachers  in 
this  country  who  adopt  and  adapt  what  is  good  in  the 
theories  and  practices  of  their  European  brethren. 

Though  the  author  had  frequently  advocated  methods 
used  in  Germany,  he  had  never  called  them  "  German 
methods  "  nor  felt  called  upon  to  refute  the  fallacy  of 
their  non-adaptability,  knowing  that  some  day  he  would 
have  an  opportunity  of  answering  it  more  successfully 
than  by  entering  into  controversies.  The  facts  offered  in 
this  book,  it  is  hoped,  may  not  seem  strange,  for  they  are 
not  decorated  with  fancies.  They  can  be  verified  by  stacks 
of  pupils'  work  collected  by  the  author  himself  on  his  vis- 
its in  hundreds  of  schools  of  various  types.  Speculations 
are  rare  in  this  book,  though  the  writer  states  his  opinion 
freely,  and  indulges  in  comparisons  perhaps  too  freely. 

He  went  to  Europe  with  the  intention  of  seeing  what 
was  worth  reporting.  Schools  inferior  to  the  average 
American  school  he  avoided.  He  strove,  during  a  journey 
of  ten  months,  to  see  the  best  that  Europe  could  offer  him, 
and  in  this  volume  he  thinks  he  has  pictured  the  best  re- 
sults, described  the  most  advanced  methods,  and  given  a 
great  number  of  valuable  hints  that  will  be  serviceable  to 
teachers  who  have  not  sunk  back  into  that  detestable  state 
of  self-sufficiency  and  satisfaction  which  is  the  arch-foe  of 
progress. 


xii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

The  most  warm-hearted  thanks  are  due  to  all  who 
aided  the  author  with  valuable  advice  in  selecting  "  points 
of  observation  " ;  thanks  also  to  the  Government  officials 
in  France,  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Austria,  and  Switzer- 
land, but  particularly  to  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion in  Berlin,  Dr.  von  Gossler,  and  to  the  director  of 
"  ecoles  primaire "  in  Paris,  Monsieur  J.  Buisson.  By 
their  generous  kindness  the  writer  was  enabled  to  see  what 
few  American  visitors  have  had  occasion  to  see. 

May  this  book  infuse  a  little  enthusiasm  into  teachers 
who  consider  their  professional  duties  distasteful ;  may  it 
strengthen  others  who  are  earnestly  striving  to  reach  a 
higher  level  of  perfection  ;  and  may  it  contribute  its  share 
toward  improving  the  schools  of  a  country  which  deserves 
to  have  the  best  schools  on  the  face  of  the  earth ! 

L.  R.  Klemm,  Ph.  D. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Septembei;  1888. 


CONTENTS 


PAOB 

Introouction         .        .        .        .      " 1 

CHAP. 

I.   Hamburg,  the  Free  City 5 

1.  A  Master-Stroke.  2.  Something  for  the  Little  Ones. 
3.  Another  Device  for  the  Little  Ones.  4.  Penman- 
ship, 5.  A  New  Scheme  for  Ventilation.  6.  "  Home- 
ology  "  (Heimathskunde).    7.  How  Literature  is  taught. 

IL  DciSBURG,  IN  Rhenish  Prussia 17 

1.  An  Efficient  City  School  System.  2.  "  Mittelschule " 
(Intermediate  School).  3.  Methods  applied.  4.  A  Dis- 
trict Conference.  5.  History  Teaching.  6.  The  Prin- 
ciples of  this  Method.  7.  Practical  Instruction  in 
Drawing.  8.  Learning  to  shade  in  Drawing.  9.  Fe- 
male Teachers  in  Germany.  10.  Tenure  of  Office.  IL 
Miscellaneous  Notes. 

in.  DiJssELDORF,  IN  Rhenish  Prussia 41 

1.  The  Whole  Nation  a  School.  2.  Singing  in  German 
Schools.  3.  A  Novtel  Exercise  in  Music.  4.  "  Nature- 
Description."  5.  A  Lesson  in  Botany.  6.  Ideal  Teach- 
ing in  Geography.  7.  Silhouette  Practice  Maps.  8. 
Cause  and  Effect  in  Geography.  9.  Making  History  an 
Experience.  10.  The  Star-Gazer.  11.  "Why  so  few 
Germans  can  talk  on  their  Feet,  12.  Class-Book  of 
Progress.  13.  Promote  the  Teachers  with  their 
Classes.     14.  A  School  of  Design. 


xiv  CONTEiNTS. 

CHAP.  PAGE 

IV.  Elberfeld-Barmen,  in  Ehenish  Prussia  .  .  .  .73 
1.  Proper  School  Furniture.  2.  The  First  Reformed  Par- 
ish Schojol.  3.  A  Separate  School  for  Dullards.  A. 
Object  and  Organization.  B.  Results.  C.  Methods 
pursued.  D.  Means  of  Instruction.  4.  A  Very  Prac- 
tical Device. 

V.   Crefeld,  in  Rresish  Prussia 94 

1.  How  English  is  taught  in  Germany.  2.  A  Primary  Les- 
son in  Mensuration.  3.  Individuality  in  Teaching.  4. 
French  Pupils  in  German  Schools. 

VI.   Cologne,  in  Rhenish  Prussia 104 

1.  Conservatism  and  Liberalism.  2.  Intermediate  Schools. 
3.  Preparatory  Schools  for  Teachers.  4.  Female 
Teachers'  Seminary.  6.  Special  Instruction  for  Teach- 
ers. 6.  Two  Conveniences.  T.  A  Lesson  in  Physics. 
8.  A  Lesson  in  Grammar.  9.  Girls'  Industrial  Educa- 
tion, I,  II,  III,  IV. 

VII.   Berlin 1S5 

1.  The  Old  and  the  New.  2.  Position  of  School-Houses. 
3.  The  Teachers  of  Berlin.  4.  Two  School  Museums. 
5.  Correcting  Compositions.  6.  My  Mode  of  Proced- 
ure. 7.  Home-made  Charts.  8.  A  Map-Suspender.  9. 
Length  of  School  Sessions.  10.  Normal  School  for 
Young  Ladies.  A.  The  Building.  B.  The  Practice 
Department.  C.  The  Normal  Department.  11.  How 
not  to  teach.  12.  "Naturkunde"  (Knowledge  of  Na- 
ture). 13.  A  Lesson  in  Singing.  14.  A  Lesson  in  Zo- 
ology. 15.  A  Most  Refreshing  Sight.  16.  A  Distinc- 
tion with  a  Big  Difference.  17.  A  Rare  Case.  18. 
"Tout  comme  chez  nous."  19.  Concentric  Extension 
of  the  Geographical  Horizon. 

VIII.   Halle,  in  Prussian  Saxony 182 

1.  The  "Francke  Stiftungcn."  2.  Concentric  Instruction 
illustrated.     3.   The  Exponent  of  the  Herbart  Move- 


CONTENTS.  XV 

3HA.P.  rASE 

ment.  4.  The  Miser  among  the  Animals.  5.  A  Les- 
son on  Robinson  Crusoe.  6.  A  Language-Lesson.  Y. 
Miscellaneous  Notes  from  Halle. 

IX.   Variocs  other  Prussian  Provinces 2H 

L  Schools  in  Prussia.  2.  A  Device,  not  a  Method.  8. 
Mental  Arithmetic  everywhere.  4.  Teaching  Decimal 
Fractions.  6.  Arithmetic  in  a  Village  School.  6.  A 
Lesson  in  Botany.  1.  Learning  to  do  by  doing.  8. 
Teaching  Composition.  9.  Criterion  of  a  Model  Les- 
son. 10.  Drawing  in  German  Schools.  11.  Drawing 
in  a  Country  School.  12.  Compulsory  Attendance.  13. 
Home  -  made  Apparatus.  14.  Our  "  Treasure  -  Box." 
15.  Local  School  Museums.  16.  A  Prussian  Normal 
School.  Introduction.  The  Building.  Biblical  His- 
tory. Literature.  Natural  History.  Drawing  and 
Music.  Geography.  Arithmetic.  Daily  Programme. 
Scarcity  of  Teachers.  11.  Three  Kinds  of  Conferences. 
18.  Object-Lessons  and  Sketching.  19.  Miscellaneous 
Observations. 

X.   Leipsic,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 262 

1.  Manual  Training-School.  2.  Appeal  to  Leipsic's  School- 
Boys.  3.  Normal  School  for  Manual  Training.  4. 
The  Work  done  in  Leipsic.  A.  Pasteboard.  B.  Wood- 
and  Wire-work.  C.  Wood-Carving.  5.  The  Germ  of 
the  Manual  Training  Idea.  6.  Drawing  in  Leipsic  and 
other  Saxon  Cities.  7.  Shading  in  Drawing.  8.  A 
Drawing-Lesson  full  of  Fun.  9.  The  Best  -  equipped 
School.     10.  Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Leipsic. 

XI.  Dresden,  in  Saxony,  and  Mdnich,  in  Bavaria  .  .  .  289 
1.  Examinations  in  Dresden.  2.  Notes  from  the  Schools 
of  Dresden.  3.  Manual  Training  in  Germany.  4.  Ob- 
jects made  in  the  Slojd  Schools.  5.  What  I  saw  in 
Munich.  6.  An  Ideal  Course  of  Study.  7.  Cause  and 
ECFect  in  Geography.  8.  "  Knabenhort "  (Asylum  for 
Boys). 
2 


xvi  CONTENTS. 


XII.   Paris 317 

1.  Industrial  Education  of  Boys.  An  Argument,  Results. 
Pupils'  Work  in  using  Tools,  in  Joinery,  Metal-work, 
Turning,  Wood-Carving,  and  Inlaid  Work,  Modeling  in 
Clay  and  Plaster.  Industrial  Work  in  Evening  Schools. 
Pupils'  Work  in  Building.  2.  Industrial  Education  of 
Girls.  3.  Dinners  for  School-Children.  4.  Gymnastic 
and  Military  Drill.  5.  Equipment  of  School-Rooms. 
6.  Drawing  in  the  Communal  School.  Y.  Sketching. 
8.  How  Geography  is  taught.  9.  French  Text-Books. 
10.  How  Reading  and  Spelling  are  taught.  11.  The 
"Musee  Pedagogique."  12.  A  Calculating  -  Machine. 
13.  Crumbs. — Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Paris. 

XIII.  Other  French  Cities 381 

1.  Making  Beauty  contagious.  2.  Composition-Books  in 
French  Schools.  3.  More  Devices,  not  Methods.  4. 
Also  a  Device,  but  oh !  5.  Ignorance  and  Chauvinism. 
6.  Molding  Maps.     7.  "  Ad  oculos  "  Evidence. 

XIV.  Vienna 392 

1.  A  Successful  and  an  Unsuccessful  Lesson.  2.  An  Ob- 
ject-Lesson  in  the  Primary  Grade.  3.  A  Lesson  in 
Grammar.  4.  Manual  Training-Schools.  Introduction. 
A  Work-bench.  5.  Pupils'  Work  in  Pasteboard,  Join- 
ery, Carpentering,  Turning,  Wood-Carving,  Modeling. 

XV.   Switzerland  and  Alsace 409 

1.  Simplicity  in  the  Wrong  Place.  2.  Industrial  Education 
of  Girls.  8.  A  Lesson  in  Philology.  4.  Notes  from 
the  Schools  of  Miilhausen. 


EUROPEAN   SCHOOLS  IN   1888. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  reader  may  permit  me  to  introduce  the  book  with 
an  ar^ment.  I  wish  to  state  emphatically  that  what  is 
urged  in  our  country,  and  advocated  under  the  caption 
"  German  methods,"  does  not  deserve  that  name.  German 
methods  have  nothing  specifically  German  about  them,  so 
long  as  they  aim  at  assisting  intellectual  growth.  The 
faculties  of  the  mind  are  essentially  the  same  in  different 
craniums.  It  matters  not  whether  I  have  to  teach  the  chil- 
dren of  a  Zulu-Kaffir,  or  an  Indian  tribe,  or  children  of 
English,  Gerijian,  French,  or  American  birth — the  leading 
features  of  m^  procedure  in  teaching  th^jci  would  be  the 
same.  It  is  only  matters  specifically  German,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  peculiar  form  of  government  and  other  things, 
such  as  customs  and  habits,  that  hear  upon  the  govern- 
ment of  schools,  which  can  not,  and  should  not,  be  urged  for 
adoption  in  our  countrv.  But  it  has  never  occurred  to  any 
"one  to  urge  institutions  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  our  free  insti- 
tutions as  specifically  German  methods.  What  is  applicable 
to  the  education  of  the  human  being,  not  of  the  German  as 
such,  is  urged,  and  that,  as  was  said,  is  not  specifically  Ger- 
man. 

There  can  be  no  objection  to  such  methods,  if  their  object 
is  to  facilitate  the  growth  of  the  mind,  the  strengthening 
and  steeling  of  the  will,  and  the  skill  of  the  hands,  though 


2  EUROPEAN   SCHOOLS  IN    1888. 

they  be  erroneously  called  German  methods,  because  in  Ger- 
many they  "wei-e  first  applied.  To  think  that  there  must  be 
special  avenues  to  the  mind  of  the  German  child,  that  can 
not  be  used  for  the  American,  is  either  the  height  of  pre- 
sumption, which  disdains  to  use  anything  not  indigenous  to 
the  American  soil,*  or  a  total  disregard  of  the  true  definition 
of  the  term  "method,"  to  wit:  ^^ Method  is  a  way  of  reach- 
ing a  given  end  by  a  series  of  acts  which  tend  to  secure  it." 

The  end  in  view  being  the. same,  why  should  not  the 
method  be  the  same  ?  I  take  it  for  granted  that  the  reader's 
innate  sense  of  truth  permits  him  to  see  that  the  end  in  view 
in  German  and  American  schools  is  the  same,  as  far  as  in- 
tellectual culture  is  concerned.  For  proofs,  he  may  read 
Comenius's,  Pestalozzi's,  Froebel's,  and  Diesterweg's  princi- 
ples and  maxims,  and  compare  them  with  expressions  of 
our  home  authorities.  I  will  not  burden  this  chapter  with 
them.  The  lessons  I  describe  in  the  following  pages  may 
convince  him  that  there  is  nothing  specifically  German  in 
"German  methods."  What  I  find  in  them  is  specifically 
human,  and  can  be  applied  in  any  school, 

"  But,"  wrote  a  learned  doctor,  with  whom  I  had  ex- 
changed arguments  on  this  point,  "  your  argument,  that  the 
faculties  of  the  mind  are  the  same  in  different  nations  and 
individuals,  might  lead  us  to  adopt  Chinese  methods,  be- 
cause the  Chinese  children's  senses  are  the  same  as  all  other 
children's," 

Why  should  it  ?  V/e  do  not  wish  to  adopt  and  adapt 
inferior  but  better  methods.  If,  perchance,  the  Chinese 
should  hit  upon  a  more  direct  and  profitable  method  of 
teaching,  I  should  not  hesitate  a  moment  in  adopting  it. 
But  the  Chinese  have  not  developed  the  art  of  teaching  to 

*  Colonel  Parker  and  other  typical  American  teachers  unhesitatinwly 
adapt  (nay,  adopt)  "  German"  methods,  and  give  due  credit  to  the  sources 
from  which  they  draw.  Many  of  the  noted  writers  in  the  educational  press 
of  to-day  have  been  in  Europe  to  study  methods.  Thus  I  found  the  names 
of  Prof.  Larkin  Dunton,  of  Boston,  and  other  Americans,  in  the  register  of 
visitors  in  schools  of  Saxony  and  Prussia. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

any  high  degree,  and  have  not  invented  or  discovered  meth- 
ods worth  recommending.  Why,  therefore,  should  we  adopt 
their  methods  ? 

Any  one  who  travels  through  Eurox)e  as  I  did  for  nearly 
a  year,  seeing,  observing,  testing,  inquiring,  examining  in  all 
domains  of  activity,  in  society,  in  schools,  in  factories,  in 
government  offices,  etc.,  would  see  that  in  EurojMi  American 
methods  are  adopted  and  applied  with  an  alacrity  worthy  of 
a  good  purpose.  I  saw  applied  numerous  American  inven- 
tions, American  methods  of  carrying  on  trade,  of  industrial 
pui-suits,  of  managing  public  and  private  affaii-s,  etc.,  ad 
infinitum.  American  machines  and  devices,  all  that  we  ai*e 
justly  proud  of,  are  there  copied,  sold,  used,  and  applied. 
Why,  might  I  ask,  do  not  the  Europeans  adopt  the  Hot- 
tentot's methods  ?  It  is  the  same  argument,  and  deserves  the 
same  answer:  It  is  the  better,  not  the  inferior  methods  that 
they  want. 

Our  almost  insular  seclusion  from  the  other  civilized 
parts  of  the  world  should  not  make  us  exclusive  in  thought 
and  action.  National  pride  is  a  grand  virtue;  but,  when  it 
becomes  derogatory  to  our  own  interests  and  shuts  our  ey^ 
to  the  progress  of  other  nations,  that  pride  becomes  a  vice. 
Not  having  a  standard  measure  of  length,  how  can  we  meas- 
xire  a  distance !  If  this  book,  in  a  modest  way,  succeeds  in 
furnishing  a  standard  of  excellence  by  which  true-hearted 
American  teachers  may  measure  their  own  performances,  it 
is  all  I  desire  and  hope  for. 

One  more  word  of  introduction.  Some  of  my  readers 
may  think  that  this  book  offers  a  little  too  much  in  the  way 
of  illustration.  To  them  may  be  recommended  the  perusal 
of  the  following  article,  clipped  from  "  Harper's  Bazar "  of 
January  14, 1888.  It  is  here  reproduced,  partly  as  a  defense 
and  partly  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  exquisite  argu- 
ment in  behalf  of  illustrations  in  the  professional  press  and 
in  school-books  of  recent  origin : 

"  One  of  the  most  cui'ious  forms  of  Gradgrind  severity  is 


4  EUROPEAN   SCHOOLS  IN   1888. 

the  crusade  occasionally  undertaken  against  all  illustrations 
of  school-books.  The  most  thoughtful  and  carefully  de- 
signed work  in  geography,  in  history,  even  in  arithmetic,  is 
supposed  to  he  sufficiently  condemned  when  it  is  called  a 
picture-book.  Yet  it  is  a  period  when  all  works  for  older 
persons — dictionaries,  encyclopaedias,  histories,  magazines — 
have  brought  the  art  of  pictorial  illustration  to  its  highest 
point.  Webster  and  Worcester  have  alike  adopted  it.  Jus- 
tin Winsor's  monumental  '  Narrative  and  Critical  History 
of  America'  is  crowded  with  portraits,  autographs,  fac- 
similes, and  reproductions  of  historic  pictures.  The  later 
editions  of  Gray's  '  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States ' 
have  careful  delineations  of  every  historical  genus.  The 
American  magazines  have  won  the  admiration  of  the  world 
by  their  illustrations  of  all  geographical  and  historical 
papers.  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson  carries  the  art  of  pictoriaK 
exhibition  even  into  political  economy,  and  is  never  quite 
happy  till  he  can  get  his  proposition  embodied  for  the  eye 
in  parallel  lines.  The  United  States  Census  Report  resorts 
to  charts  and  curves  and  colored  diagrams  when  it  wishes 
fully  to  elucidate  anyimportant  general  result.  All  this  is 
done  for  grown  people — for  the  gravest,  the  maturest,  the 
most  educated.  They,  if  any,  are  the  persons  who  might 
fairly  be  asked  to  fix  their  minds  clearly  and  austerely  upon 
words  and  numerals,  without  stooping  to  the  alleged  frivol- 
ity of  picture-books.  If  they  do  not  accomplish  this,  if  the 
very  people  who  make  the  criticism  are  only  too  glad  to  eke 
out  their  own  imperfect  knowledge  by  an  illustrated  maga- 
zine, or  an  illustrated  dictionary,  is  it  not  a  little  absurd  in 
them  to  enforce  such  a  grim  abstinence  upon  school-chil- 
dren ? 

"No  child  can  understand  from  words  alone  that  there  is 
any  part  of  the  world  which  is  essentially  different  from  his 
native  town,  but  his  first  picture  of  a  glacier  or  a  geyser,  a 
castle  or  a  cathedral,  the  Sphinx  of  Egypt  or  the  Eskimo  in 
his  kayak,  opens  his  eyes  to  the  rest  of  the  globe;  he  be- 
gins to  be  a  traveled  man.     It  is  even  more  true  of  history: 


A  MASTER-STROKE.  5 

the  most  skillful  combination  of  words  can  never  bring  a 
child  so  near  to  the  Mound-builders  or  the  Pueblo  Indians, 
to  the  Puritans  or  the  Cavaliers,  to  the  Revolutionary  sol- 
diers and  the  founders  of  oiir  government,  as  he  is  brought 
by  the  first  good  picture  he  sees.  When  shall  we  live  up  to 
the  strong  good  sense  of  Horace  Mann,  who  pointed  out  that 
the  love  of  knowledge  is  as  natural  to  a  healthy  child's  mind 
as  the  desire  for  food  ? " 


CHAPTER  I. 

HAMBURG. 

1.  A  Master-Stroke. 

Scene,  a  hot,  dingy  school-room  in  the  Gymnasium  of 
Hamburg;  pupils  supposed  to  attend  to  a  lesson  in  algebra; 
the  teacher  a  middle-aged,  patient-looking  man,  with  care- 
worn features,  but  remarkably  keen  eyes  and  the  proverbial 
square  forehead  of  a  mathematician.  One  of  the  pupils,  a 
criminally  stupid-looking  specimen  of  the  genus  homo  sapi- 
ens— one  of  those  boys  whom  Schiller  must  have  had  in 
mind  when  he  said,  "  With  stupidity  even  the  gods  fight  in 
vain  " — could  not  see  why  the  difference  between  plus  6  and 
minus  10  should  be  16,  The  teacher  made  it  clear  by  re- 
ferring to  six  marbles  in  pocket  and  ten  lost  in  the  game 
played  "  for  keeps."  The  boy  persisted  in  saying  the  sum 
was  16,  but  not  the  difference,  confounding  in  his  mind  re- 
mainder with  difference. 

•  I  pitied  the  teacher,  but  was  curious  to  see  the  outcome  of 
this  tussle  with  stupidity.  The  teacher  looked  up,  cast  his 
eyes  about  the  room,  ran  to  the  thermometer,  snatched  it  up, 
and  with  a  triumphant  look  aimed  a  last  blow  at  stupidity 
by  demonstrating  that  the  difference  between  6°  above  zero 
and  10°  below  zero  was  16",  not  4°,  as  the  boy  thought.    This 


6  HAMBURG. 

last  stroke  was  a  master-stroke,  and  the  boy's  mind  yielded  to 
this  demonstration  ad  oculos.  Further  questioning  revealed 
the  fact  that  he  had  caught  the  truth  and  held  on  to  it.  I 
never  left  a  school  so  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  useful- 
ness of  the  objective  method  as  I  did  that  day, 

I  have  gathered  a  great  many  interesting  points  on  my 
journey  of  inspection,  and  shall  continue  to  do  so  till  my 
purse  calls  a  halt.  Most  Americans  visiting  Europe  only 
follow  the  great  high-roads  of  travel,  and  care  naught  for 
the  pleasant  by-ways  which  are  studded  with  flowers  of  the 
richest  hue.  I  am  wandering  with  my  friend  through  the 
country.  A  small  knapsack  containing  the  necessaries  for 
toilet  is  all  the  baggage  we  have.  We  see  much,  experience 
unspeakable  pleastires,  learn  a  great  deal,  and  gather  honey 
as  we  go  along.  I  assure  my  readers  we  are  the  happiest 
couple  of  tramps  one  can  imagine. 

2.  Something  for  the  Little  Ones. 

This  device  (see  cut,  No.  1,  below)  I  found  in  almost  every 
primer-class  in  German  schools.     Its  object  is  plain.     It  is  a 


box  full  of  movable  letters,  printed  on  cardboard,  which  may 
be  placed  on  ledges  nailed  to  the  lid.  The  letters  are  used  in 
teaching  yotmg  children  to  read  by  means  of  the  word  and 


SOMETHING   FOR  TDE  LITTLE  ONES.  7 

phonic  method  comhined.  The  letters  on  stiff  cardboard  are 
arranged,  according  to  the  frequency  with  which  they  are 
used,  like  the  types  in  a  compositor's  case. 

Thus,  for  instance,  the  word  man  is  placed  on  the  ledge 
and  learned  as  a  whole ;  then  the  different  letters,  learned  as 
sounds,  are  obtained  by  analyzing  the  word.  After  that 
other  known  sounds  are  substituted,  for  instance,  r  for  m, 
which  makes  the  word  raw,  and  so  on.  All  new  sounds  ob- 
tained by  analjTzing  words  are  made  into  new  words,  until 
the  child  can  sound  through  any  word  at  sight.  Where  the 
phonic  method  is  used,  the  "  Setz  Kasten  "  may  be  used  very 
well  in  English  and  American  schools. 

I  asked  a  young  lady  whom  I  saw  using  this  device  what 
she  would  do  if  she  had  no  "  Setz  Kasten."  She  said  with 
determination :  "  I'd  pawn  my  bonnet  and  get  one  at  once. 
I  can  not  teach  reading  without  movable  letters.  The  read- 
ing of  an  adult  person  is  rapid  sounding,  and  the  sound- 
ing of  the  little  ones  is  simply  slow  reading. " 

Whether  this  case  of  letters  can  be  used  in  teaching  read- 
ing to  English-speaking  children  is  no  longer  a  question, 
since  it  has  been  demonstrated  repeatedly.  One  of  my  teach- 
ers in  Hamilton  (Ohio)  practices  analysis  and  synthesis  of 
words  by  placing  thi*ee  bright  boys  in  front  of  the  class, 
charging  one  to  say  m  (the  sound  m,  not  the  letter  em)  when 
called  upon;  the  next  one  a;  and  the  third  n.  Then  by 
placing  them  close  to  each  other,  so  that  their  shoulders 
would  touch,  she  makes  them  sound  the  word  man  rapidly. 
The  same  is  done  with  other  words. 

Now  she  separates  the  boys,  the  middle  one  remaining  in 
his  place,  while  the  others  recede  toward  the  right  and  left, 
and  every  time  they  make  a  step  the  word  is  pronounced 
over  again,  thus  separating  the  sounds  farther  and  farther. 
After  that  is  done,  synthesis  follows,  and  the  two  "  end  men  " 
come  back  to  their  old  position  step  by  step,  the  three  boys 
pronouncing  the  sounds  as  often  as  a  step  is  made,  the 
sounds  being  drawn  long  enough  to  make  them  appear  one 
word.     Other  words  are  treated  in  like  manner. 


8 


HAMBURG. 


Now  the  teacher  changes  the  boys'  positions  and  asks 
each  to  pronounce  his  sound.  Of  course,  it  is  at  once  seen 
that  that  does  not  make  the  word  man  or  whatever  word 
was  before  the  class.  Finally,  they  assume  their  former 
position,  and  once  more  the  well-known  words  are  pro- 
nounced. Then  these  words  are  found  on  the  chart,  on  the 
board,  in  print  and  script  form,  and  it  goes  without  saying 
that  the  children  enjoy  these  lessons.  Call  this  play  if  you 
please.  If  the  children  learn  more  by  play  than  by  joyless 
drudgery,  we  should  prefer  play  every  time.  Now,  substi- 
tuting the  movable  letters,  the  art  of  joining  letters  to  make 
words  can  be  learned  quite  rapidly  even  by  the  dullest  child. 

"  How  long  does  it  take  an  average  class  to  master  the 
art  of  reading  sufficiently  to  take  up  the  first  reader  ? "  I 
asked  several  teachers  at  difPerent  places. 

"About  three  or  four  months,  never  more.    Sometimes 

a  specially  bright  class  gets 


yW?^>W/MW///>M///////>//M////W/777777: 


THE  SPACE  ABOVE  AND  BELOW 

THE    APERTURES    IS    USED    A3 

a  LACK  BOARD. 


M 


Fig.  2. 


into  the  first  reader  after  six 
weeks."  Think  of  it,  and 
then  compare  this  with  the 
fact  that  our  English-speak- 
ing children  in  America, 
owing  to  the  incongruity  of 
English  spelling,  are  worried 
with  the  words  of  the  primer 
and  charts  for  moi-e  than  a 
year ! 

3.  Another  Device  for 
THE  Little  Ones. 

A  truly  ingenious  device 

is  the  apparatus  I  wish  to 

describe  here.      I  saw  it  in 

Hamburg    first    and    aftei> 

ward  in  other  German  schools.     It  is  used  to  facilitate  the 

teaching  of  reading.     The  two  sketches  (2  and  3)  below  may 

assist  me  in  my  description. 


ANOTHER  DEVICE  FOR  THE  LITTLE  ONES. 


9 


It  is  a  blackboard,  two  feet  square,  with  three  apertures, 
two  of  which  appear  covered  by  a  board  in  the  rear.  Into 
convenient  slits  are  shoved  strips  of  strong  pasteboard,  on 
which  are  printed  letters  or  syllables.  The  strips  containing 
the  vowels  are  shoved  from  right  to  left,  or  vice  versa ;  the 
slats  containing  the  consonants  are  shoved  up  and  down. 


/v/^/y./yyyyyW/^>yxv^^^ 


f 

— - 

Tf 

r 

d 

d 

r 

b 

s 

s 

sh 

Fig.  3. 


Every  movement  creates  a  new  word,  "  possible  or  impossi- 
ble"; but  the  characters  printed  on  the  strips  are  exceed- 
ingly well  selected  and  grouped,  so  that  their  arrangement 
is  made  easy. 

Of  course,  a  "beginner  will  find  some  difficulty  in  hand- 


10  HAMBURG. 

ling  the  apparatus ;  but  it  is  quickly  learned,  and  the  teacher 
whom  I  saw  use  it  handled  it  with  such  a  velocity  that  no 
awkward  pauses  interrupted  the  lesson.  There  were  a  great 
number  of  slats,  some  containing  only  single  letters,  some 
combinations,  as  ch,  sh,  sf,  cJc,  etc. ;  others  containing  syl- 
lables which  are  apt  to  occur  often,  as  be,  dis,  in,  etc. 

The  advantages  connected  with  this  apparatus  consist  in 
this:  1.  It  offers  to  the  eye  of  the  little  pupils  only  one  word 
at  first.  Their  attention  is  not  diverted  by  a  large  number 
of  words,  such  as  are  found  on  a  chart  or  on  a  page  of  the 
primer.  2.  The  word  is  easily  changed  by  changing  one 
letter,  as,  for  instance,  man  to  can,  fan,  ran,  Dan,  etc.  This 
change  is  made  before  the  eyes  of  the  pupils,  who  will 
readily  see  that  the  remainder  of  the  word  remains  the  same. 
3.  It  obviates  the  difficulty  of  writing  whole  strings  of  words 
on  the  blackboard.  4.  On  the  charts  or  in  the  primer  the 
words  are  fixed,  and  the  pupils  are  apt  to  learn  them  by 
heart.  This  is  prevented,  since  the  words  in  the  apparatus 
change  kaleidoscopically. 

The  apparatus  is  accompanied  by  a  box  containing  some 
forty  to  fifty  slats.  (For  the  convenience  of  my  English- 
speaking  readers  I  have  pictured  English  letters  in  my 
sketch.) 

4.    PENMANSmP. 

On  my  tour  through  German,  Dutch,  and  French  schools, 
I  saw  only  one  in  which  copy-books  for  instruction  in  pen- 
manship were  in  use.  Nevertheless,  the  writing  of  the 
pupils  was  remarkably  regular,  and  in  many  cases  elegant. 
Lfound  it  so  everywhere  in  Prussia,  from  Hamburg  to  Ma- 
yence.  This  absence  had  struck  me  as  well  worthy  of  note. 
When  I  did  see  the  copy-book  in  use,  near  Hamburg,  I 
thought  it  time  to  inquire  about  it,  and  the  reply  was  as 
ludicrous  as  it  was  sensible:  "  My  dear  sir,  my  school  is  un- 
der punishment.  Because  the  boys  had  acquired  negligent 
habits,  and  handed  in  poorly  written  compositions  and  home 
exercises,  I  made  them  procure  copy-books  and  practice  good 


PENMANSHIP.  11 

forms  of  letters.  The  boys  are  fully  aware  of  the  fact  that 
they  are,  calligraphically,  '  under  a  cloud,'  and  try  hard  to 
redeem  themselves  and  regain  their  former  standard. 

"  As  a  rule,  we  do  not  use  copy-books,  starting  from  the 
principle  that  the  pupils  need  no  special  instruction  in  pen- 
manship, if  they  wi-ite  well  whatever  they  write.  This  is 
the  rule  in  our  school.  From  the  lowest  grade  upward 
good  writing  is  insisted  upon,  and  the  teachers  take  good 
care  never  to  hurry  their  pupils  much  in  their  written 
work.  The  teachers  themselves  never  write  negligently  on 
the  board,  so  that  the  pupils  have  only  good  models.  The 
result  of  this  practice  is  so  apparent  that  it  needs  no  em- 
phatic assurance. 

"■  Copy-books  are  an  excuse  for  bad  penmanship.  If  the 
pupils  write  well  during  the-  short  space  of  two  or  three  les- 
sons a  week,  and  hurriedly  and  slovenly  during  all  the  re- 
mainder of  the  week,  the  pi-actice  in  the  copy-book  will  not 
produce  good  penmen.  Penmanship  is  an  art  which  can 
be  maintained  only  if  practiced  constantly.  Just  as  little  as 
it  will  do  to  be  good,  kind,  and  obedirait  during  the  early- 
lesson  in  religion  and  morals,  and  unruly,  bad,  and  vicious 
during  the  remainder  of  the  day,  will  it  do  to  permit  the 
habit  of  poor  penmanship  to  grow  upon  the  pupUs." 

The  answer  seemed  to  me  so  convinciag  that  I  considered 
it  worth  quoting.  I  asked,  "  What  do  you  do  to  teach  ar- 
tistic forms,  various  styles  of  penmanship,  forms  of  beauty, 
and  fine  initials  ? "    The  answer  was : 

"  We  do  not  teach  them ;  do  not  want  to  attempt  such 
things.  If  any  of  our  pupils  wish  to  learn  them,  let  them 
apply  to  a  special  school  of  calligraphy.  The  teachers  in  the 
common  school  teach  what  is  necessary  to  a  conmion-school 
education.    All  specialties  must  be  excluded." 

This  answer  indicated  that  the  teacher  had  a  correct  idea 
of  the  end  and  aim  toward  which  he  was  steering.  I  find 
this  generally  to  be  the  case  in  these  German  schools.  Each 
teacher  knows  exactly  what  he  aims  at.  He  has  his  rules 
and  i-egulations,  and  his  course  of  study,  and  he  knows  them 


12 


HiMBURG. 


by  heart.  His  thorough  professional  training  enables  him 
to  steer  his  way  clear  of  impediments  such  as  beset  the  way 
of  any  one  who  is  not  clear  on  what  he  wants.  It  remains 
ever  true  that  he  who  knows  wliat  he  wants  will  find  a  way 
how  to  obtain  it. 

5.  A  New  Scheme  for  Ventilation. 

When  it  is  found  inconvenient  to  raise  or  lower  the  win- 
dow for  the  purposes  of  ventilation,  a  little  device  like  the  one 
represented  in  the  cut  (4)  may  be  applied.  I  find  it  in  use 
all  over  Germany,  where  many  class-rooms  are  overcrowded, 
and  where  the  pupils'  seats  are  standing  very  near  the  win- 
dows. This  ventilator  is  constructed  like  our  Venetian  shut- 
ters, only  that  the  slats  are  of  glass.  Each  slat  is  set  in  a 
bi'ass  groove  which  ends  in  a  pin  or  pivot.     The  different 


M 


/■ 


Fia.  4. 


slats  are  connected  by  a  simple  device,  and  may  be  opened 
wide,  or  only  a  trifle,  as  may  be  desirable. 

6.    "HOME-OLOGY." 

"  Heimathskunde,"  knowledge  of  home  and  its  surround- 
ings, is  what  they  term  primary  geography  in  Germany. 


HOilE-OLOGY. 


13 


In  order  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  what  is  done  in  the 
primary  grades,  a  few  suggestions  may  suffice.  I  heard 
some  lessons  in  "home-ology"  in  Hamburg,  and  enjoyed 
them  very  much.     I  may  be  allowed  to  give  the  results  of 


Fia.  5. 


the  lesson  in  the  form  of  a  sketch-map.     This  map  (5)  was 
made  on  the  board  as  the  lesson  proceeded. 

Teacher:  In  what  direction  is  our  school  from  the  Inner 
Alster,  or  Alster  Basin?  What  street  on  this  side  of  the 
Basin  ?  On  the  opposite  side  ?  On  the  third  ?  fourth  ? 
Wliat  separates  the  Inner  from  the  Outer  Alster  ?  What 
bridge  ?  What  monuments  are  erected  on  the  esplanade  ? 
In  what  direction  from  the  Basin  is  the  Nicolai  Church  ? 


14  HAMBURG. 

The  new  Polytechnicum  ?  The  theatre  ?  The  Berlin  De- 
pot ?  On  what  side  of  the  Alster  Basin  is  the  new  hotel,  the 
Hamhurger  Hof,  situated  ?  and  so  forth.  Some  streets  were 
sketched  in  order  to  make  the  picture  more  vivid. 

Every  new  item  was  inserted  in  the  sketch  on  the  board 
drawn  by  the  teacher.  Thus  the  sketch  of  a  city  plan  grew 
by  degrees,  and  the  pupils  drew  or  imitated  this  plan  on 
their  slates.  One  can  not  imagine  a  more  attentive  group  of 
young  children  than  these  were.  Each  one  was  eager  to 
suggest  new  points  known  to  him.  I  copied  the  sketch 
as  the  lesson  progressed,  and  hope  that  its  simplicity  will 
speak  for  itself.  No  teacher  can  hide  his  unwillingness  to 
follow  suit  behind  so  flimsy  an  excuse  as  "  I  can't  draw,"  for 
the  drawing  of  such  a  sketch  presupposes  no  training  nor 
special  skill  in  drawing. 

When  the  geographical  part  of  the  lesson  was  well  dis- 
posed of,  the  teacher  gave  a  new  zest  to  the  pupils  by  asking, 
"  To  whom  belongs  the  theatre,  the  school,  the  bridge,"  etc.  ? 
In  the  most  natural  way  possible  the  pupils  learned  some- 
thing of  governmental  relations,  and  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  subsequent  study  of  history.  It  caused  a  merry  inter- 
ruption when  a  little  boy  thought  the  school-house  belonged 
to  Mr.  — -  (the  janitor). 

In  a  higher  grade  of  the  same  school  the  geography  of 
Germany  was  the  topic  of  the  day.  It  was  still  "home- 
ology,"  only  with  a  wider  horizon.  The  teacher  began  by 
making  a  few  simple  lines  representing  the  so-called  "  mount- 
ain-cross "  in  Central  Europe.  After  first  drawing  the  Fich- 
tel  Mountains,  the  center  of  the  figure  (6),  he  added  the  Erz 
Mountains  toward  the  northeast,  the  Franconian  and  Thu- 
ringian  Forest  toward  the  northwest,  the  Bohemian  and  Ba- 
varian Forest  toward  the  southeast,  the  Franconian  and 
Swabian  Jura  toward  the  southwest.  A  few  peaks  were 
mentioned,  as  were  also  the  characteristics  of  these  mount- 
ains. Thus,  for  instance,  the  silver-mines  in  Saxony,  the 
dense  forests  in  Bohemia,  the  lovely  scenery  in  Thuringia, 
the  caves  in  the  Jiira,  etc.,  came  in  for  a  few  well-remem- 


HOME-OLOGY. 


15 


bered  remarks.    The  teacher  always  knew  when  to  stop; 
he  was  discretion  personified. 

Now,  the  teacher  drew  the  four  rivers  which  rise  in  the 
Fichtel  Mountains — namely,  Main,  Saale,  Eger,  and  Naab — 
showing  and  indicating  on  the  map  into  what  main  rivers 


Fig.  6. 


they  empty.  A  few  important  cities  and  the  countries 
around  the  cross  were  named.  All  this  information  was 
partly  given,  partly  asked  for,  as  the  case  suggested. 

Now,  the  complete  map,  a  printed  one,  was  hung  up,  and 
all  the  information  just  gained  was  looked  up.  Each  item 
was  noted,  and  it  made  the  children  fairly  glow  with  enthu- 
siasm when  they  were  able  to  coi-roborate  the  facts  of  the 
two  maps.  In  a  few  points  the  map  on  the  board  was  cor- 
rected, improved,  and  completed ;  then  the  lesson  closed,  and 
now  followed  the  recitation — that  is  to  say,  the  pupils  were 
called  upon  to  state,  in  answer  to  leading  questions,  what 
they  remembered  of  the  lesson.  My  heart  was  filled  with 
joy  when  I  heard  them  speak  out,  not  like  human  parrots 
3 


15  HAMBURG. 

who  had  memorized,  but  like  rational  beings  who  had 
learned  by  experience.  The  hour  was  brought  to  a  close  by 
an  imaginary  journey  all  over  the  section  the  acquaintance 
of  which  they  had  just  made.  Many  little  items  of  informa- 
tion were  added  on  this  journey.  Photographic  views  of 
rocks  and  mountain  scenery  were  exhibited,  and  they  proved 
to  be  of  intense  interest  to  these  children,  who  have  no  op- 
portunities of  seeing  a  mountain  "in  nattu-e." 

7.  How  Literature  is  taught. 

The  common  schools  of  Hamburg  have  a  seven  years' 
course,  to  which  is  added  a  class  for  girls,  called  selecta.  In 
this  class  I  heard  a  lesson  in  literature  which  seemed  to  me 
worthy  of  mention.  The  young  ladies  had  no  text-book  of 
history  of  literature,  but  a  book  containing  copious  selec- 
tions from  the  best  German  poets  and  prose  writers.  They 
read  a  passage  from  the  "  Seventieth  Birthday,"  by  Yoss,  and 
read  it  well.  Then  the  teacher  questioned  them  about  the 
contents  of  the  matter  read.  It  was  remarkable  how  accu- 
rately they  reproduced  poetical  thoughts  in  prose,  and  what 
a  felicitous  choice  of  words  they  made. 

After  they  had  proved  to  be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  substance  of  the  poem,  they  were  questioned  as  to  the 
kind  of  poetry  it  belonged  to.  And  before  the  pupils  made 
the  acquaintance  of  such  words  as  prosody,  etc.,  they  had 
learned  a  good  deal  of  it.  Terms  like  epic,  lyric,  etc.,  fell 
like  ripe  fruit  from  the  tree  of  experience.  After  general 
observations,  the  characters  of  certain  persons  in  the  poem 
were  reviewed,  the  old  schoolmaster,  the  wife,  etc.,  and  for 
each  discovered  trait  proofs  were  searched  among  the  actions 
and  sayings  of  the  person  referred  to. 

Now,  the  poem  was  scanned,  and  the  metre  was  compared 
with  that  of  others.  Repeated  references  to  other  poems  in 
hexameters  made  this  pai"t  of  the  lesson  particularly  fruitful. 
A  vista  into  the  history  of  literature  was  then  opened  by 
first  learning  something  about  the  author  of  the  poem  under 
discussion.    The  information  was  given  by  the  teachers,  and 


AN  EFFICIEXT  CITY  SCflOOL  SYSTEM.  17 

the  pupils  took  notes.  Then  the  surroundings  which  exer- 
cised a  beneficial  or  detrimental  influence  upon  him  wei-e 
mentioned,  and  in  this  way  the  horizon  of  the  pupils  was 
widened.  All  their  knowledge  of  the  history  of  literature 
was  grouped  around  a  few  famous  poets. 

Before  the  lesson,  which  lasted  an  hour,  was  closed,  an- 
other poem,  ''  The  ChUd  of  Sorrow,"  by  Herder,  was  read 
in  chorus,  and  then  treated  like  the  first  one.  Again  the 
poem  was  made  the  nucleus  around  which  was  grouped  the 
knowledge  gained.  Since  this  poem  was  both  in  contents 
and  form  different  from  the  other,  it  afforded  ample  opi)or- 
tunity  for  contrasts,  and  thus  the  knowledge  gained  was 
brought  into  bold  relief.  Of  course,  this  method  needs  a 
teacher  of  thorough  acquaintance  with  literature,  and  its 
history,  and  one  who  has  the  enviable  gift  of  application. 
All  others  should  keep  hands  off. 


CHAPTEE  n. 

duisburg  {rhekish  prussia). 
1.  An  Efficient  City  School  System. 

DuiSBURG,  a  town  of  about  sixty  thousand  inhabitants, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Ruhr  and  Rhine,  a 
very  busy  industrial  center,  has  a  most  remarkable  school 
system.  I  will  endeavor  to  sketch  it,  not  because  it  is  worthy 
of  imitation  in  its  organization,  for  our  American  school 
system  is,  in  that  regard,  much  more  preferable,  but  because 
a  description  of  the  system  in  Duisburg  is  a  typical  one,  and 
explains  the  social  conditions  of  the  people.  A  diagram  (7) 
may  assist  me : 

A  is  the  People's  School.  It  consists  of  two  schools,  in 
fact,  namely,  of  A  a,  five  grades  of  primary  schools  for  both 
sexes,  and  A  b,  four  grades  of  intermediate  schools  for  boys 
only.     This  primary  or  elementary  school  rounds  off  its 


18 


DUISBURG   (REENISH   PRUSSIA). 


course  somewhat — that  is,  oflPers  its  pupils  the  elements,  and 
abstains  from  all  scientific  branches.  In  arithmetic  it  leaves 
off  when  simple  examples  in  percentage  can  be  solved.  The 
intermediate  school  takes  the  boys  from  the  fourth-year 
grade  of  the  primary  school  if  they  intend  to  stay  in  school 
longer,  but  can  not  enter  a  high-school.  This  intermediate 
school  has  a  more  complete  course  than  our  grammar-school, 
teaching  geometry  and  algebra,  natural  histoiy  and  science. 


YEAR 
OF  LIFE 

6tli 

7th 

8th 

9th 

10th 

11th 

12th 

13th 

14th 

13th 

16th 

17th 

18th 

SCHOOL 
YEAR 

1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

9th 

10th 

nth 

12th 

13th 

A« 

!    1 

1 
] 

— i- 

1         1 

A.&i       J 

B.  Lv.:!: 

1 
1 

r— 1 

' 1 

— 

* 

""^ 

c.  r": 

':::.[':::: 

D. 

____ 

_  I'  -i"  ^ 

J 

< 

X 

bj 
CO 

< 
1- 
z 

o 

< 

H 
C 
< 

o 

< 

< 
< 
\- 

ir 
u 

< 
o 

z 

< 
o 

z 

< 
s 

a. 

< 

SOME 

PREP 

IN 

< 
A 

H 

;iTiE 

RATC 
IGH 

s  MAir 

RY  CL 
6CH0C 

4TAIN 
ASSE3 
LS, 

E" 
a. 

Fig.  7. 


Although  it  is  not  obligatory  to  stay  during  the  ninth  school 
year,  many  pupils  prefer  to  remain  till  they  are  fifteen  years 
of  age.     I  have  marked  that  grade  with  dotted  lines  and  *. 

B  is  the  GirW  High-School.  In  other  cities  it  has  a  pre- 
paratory school  of  its  own,  and  does  not  draw  its  pupils  from 
the  primary  people's  school.  In  many  of  such  schools  for 
girls  a  seventh  grade  (a  selecta)  is  added,  in  which  young 
ladies  are  prepared  for  the  teacher's  profession.  I  have 
marked  that  grade  with  dotted  lines  and  *  also. 

C  is  a  Boys^  High-School,  called  " Eealschule,''  or  "Real- 
gymnasium."  It  pays  more  attention  to  natural  history, 
natural  sciences  (physiology,  physics,  and  chemistry),  mod- 
ern language,  and  drawing  than  does  the  school  marked  D. 
Its  graduates  are  admitted  to  the  universities,  but  not  to  all 


AN  EITICIENT  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTJ:M.  19 

departments.  Business  men,  engineers,  and  other  scientific 
men  prefer  this  school  to  D. 

D  is  also  a  Boys'  High-School,  called  Gymnasium.  In 
France  it  is  called  Lyceum ;  in  America  we  would  call  it  the 
Boys'  Classical  High-School  or  College.  It  pays  particular 
attention  to  classical  languages,  and  its  graduates  are  ad- 
mitted to  the  universities  without  examination. 

Pupils  of  both  C  and  D,  when  they  have  completed  the 
course  to  lower  secunda,  pass  an  examination  which  abbre- 
viates their  three  years'  term  of  serving  in  the  armj'  to  one 
year.  Such  one-year  soldiers  can  be  recognized  in  the  ranks 
of  a  regiment  by  black-and-white  borders  on  their  shoulder- 
straps.  This  privilege  of  serving  only  one  year  instead  of 
three  is  a  tribute  the  Government  pays  to  thorough  and  ex- 
tended education. 

I  know  full  well  that  this  separation  of  children  into 
diflPerent  schools  according  to  their  social  standing  and 
worldly  circumstances  is  distasteful  to  us ;  I  know  that  we 
are  not  apt  to  imitate  this,  I  also  know  that  this  description 
of  the  German  school  system  is  a  digression  from  my  text, 
but  I  deem  it  desirable,  if  not  necessary,  to  make  this  ex- 
planation, so  that  my  readers  may  judge  more  intelligently 
as  to  the  merits  of  certain  methods  and  results  that  I  may 
describe  hereafter.  The  mere  statement  of  this  or  that  be- 
ing accomplished  in  this  or  that  school  yeai*  is  not  always 
a  sufiicient  guide,  since  the  material  is  vastly  different  in 
diflPerent  schools.  The  people's  school  contains  the  poorer, 
ill-fed  children ;  the  others  the  children  of  the  wealthier  and 
more  cultivated  classes  of  society. 

Let  me  add  that  all  these  schools  are  public  schools, 
though  tuition  fees  are  paid  in  all  of  them.  The  idea  of  ab- 
solutely free  tuition  is  gaining  ground,  though,  in  Germany. 
In  order  to  complete  my  sketch,  I  should  add  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  schools  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  there  is  another  school 
for  boys,  called  Burger  School.  Its  course  is  parallel  with 
B  (see  diagi-am).  But,  wherever  a  Biirger  school  is  main- 
tained, the  intermediate  school  of  A  is  omitted. 


20  DUISBURG   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

2.  The  "Mittelschule." 

It  is  the  intermediate  or  "  middle  school "  (A  b)  of  which 
I  desire  to  give  an  account.  While  the  city  of  Duisburg 
maintains  a  great  number  of  elementary  schools,  it  has  but 
one  intermediate  school.  I  spent  a  whole  day  in  it.  Its 
course  of  study  embraces  the  following  branches : 

1.  Religion.  —  a.  Biblical  history- ;  h.  Catechism  ;  c. 
Hymns  and  Bible  verses ;  d.  History  of  the  Church. 

2.  Language. — Only  the  mother -tongue,  a.  Reading 
and  literature;  6.  Composition;  c.  Grammar. 

3.  Mathematics. — a.  Arithmetic  completed;  h.  Algebra, 
elementary ;  c.  Geometry  and  mensuration, 

4.  Geography. — a.  Topographical  ;  b.  Astronomical ;  c. 
Political;  d.  Physical. 

5.  History. — a.  General  history  in  first  year;  6.  Prus- 
sian history  in  second  year  ;  c.  German  history  in  third 
year;  d.  Review. 

6.  Natural  History. — a.  Botany  in  first  year  ;  h.  Zo- 
ology in  second  year. 

7.  Physics  in  third  year ;  apparatus. 

8.  Chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  third  and  fourth  years; 
apparatus. 

9.  Drawing. — Free-hand,  geometrical,  decorative,  and 
drawing  from  solids. 

10.  Music. — Theoretical  and  vocal. 

11.  Gymnastics^  calisthenics,  and  with'  suitable  appa- 
ratus. 

A  mere  glance  at  this  list  will  reveal  the  fact  that  this 
school,  which  is  equal  to  our  grammar-schools  in  age  of 
pupils,  in  organization,  etc.,  accomplishes  more  than  is  done 
in  our  grammar-schools.  First,  more  in  mathematics  is  of- 
fered ;  secondly,  history  is  ofPered  in  four  years,  while  with  us 
it  is  confined  to  home  history  and  to  one  year  or  at  best  two 
years ;  thii'dly,  physics  and  chemistry  are  taught,  and  very 
well,  I  must  say;  fom-thly,  drawing  is  carried  to  di'awing 


METHODS  APPLIED.  21 

from  casts  and  other  solid  models;  fifthly,  a  regular  daily 
lesson  in  gymnastics  is  given.  Add  to  all  this  a  daily  lesson 
in  religion,  which  I  mention  merely  to  state  that  it  takes 
time  like  other  branches  of  study,  and  it  will  be  clear  to  my 
readers  that  the  school  offers  an  education  to  the  lowest 
classes  of  society  such  as  is  not  offered  in  many  American 
grammar-schools. 

I  do  not  pretend  to  insinuate  that  this  should  be  a  criti- 
cism upon  our  school  system,  or  that  I  blame  our  teachers 
and  superintendents  ;  far  from  it.  The  reason  of  this  re- 
markable difference  in  results  may  be  found  in  the  vast 
amount  of  time  which  is  necessarily  spent  in  mastering  the 
outrageous  orthography  of  our  English  language  and  in 
other  reasons  too  obvious  to  mention;  but  it  is  highly  in- 
structive to  "  see  ourselves  as  others  see  us,"  or  notice  wliat 
others  do  and  measure  our  results  with  theirs. 

3.  Methods  applied. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  methods  applied  in  this  school 
have  something  to  do  with  the  good  results  achieved.  In 
his  famous  report  Horace  Mann  said:  "  In  Germany  I  never 
saw  a  teacher  hearing  a  recitation  with  a  book  in  his  hand, 
nor  a  teacher  sitting  while  hearing  a  recitation."  This  holds 
good  still.  I  passed  through  six  rooms  repeatedly  during 
the  day  I  spent  in  the  Duisburg  "  Mittelschule,"  and  saw  or 
heard  nine  lessons  or  recitations,  but  not  once  did  I  see  a 
teacher  with  a  book  in  his  hands,  not  even  during  a  lesson 
in  reading  and  literature.  "  I  expect  you  to  read  so  that  I 
.  may  understand  you  instantly,"  the  teacher  said  to  the  class ; 
and  they  did  it,  to  be  sure. 

Arithmetic  was  taught  without  a  text-book.  After  a 
thorough  lesson  in  division  of  fractions  was  completed  oral- 
ly, the  order  came,  "  Take  j^our  books  and  solve  problems  12 
to  18  on  page  23."  I  looked  at  the  book  and  found  it  to  be  a 
small,  primer-like  looking  thing,  filled  with  problems,  and 
void  of  all  the  explanations  that  swell  our  text-books  of 
arithmetic.     The  text- book  of  algebra  was  no  larrcr,  and  for 


22  DUISBURG  (RHENISU  PRUSSIA). 

geometry  no  book  at  all  was  iised,  but  the  boys  entered  the 
results  of  a  new  lesson  in  a  composition-book. 

I  asked  for  the  text-book  in  grammar,  and  evoked  a 
broad  and  humorous  smile ;  but  their  histories  were  pretty 
good-sized  books.  I  found  no  text-book  of  botany  or  zo- 
ology, but  a  valuable  collection  of  objects — dried  plants  and 
stuffed  animals  and  finely-colored  charts.  The  apparatus 
for  instruction  in  physics  was  in  good  condition  and  filled 
four  spacious  cupboards.  That  for  chemistry  was  less  costly, 
naturally  so,  but  complete.  Their  geography  contained  no 
text;  it  was  simply  an  atlas.  Take  it  all  in  all,  the  teachers 
taught  and  the  pupils  saw  much,  were  obliged  to  do  much, 
and  then  to  tell  about  it  orally  and  in  writing. 

That  is  the  whole  story  in  a  nutshell.  In  gi'ammar  the 
method  was  cumulative,  not  analytic ;  in  physics  and  chem- 
istry it  was  experimental  throughout ;  in  mathematics  it  was 
demonstrative.  Nowhere  did  I  find  any  parrot-like  repeti- 
tion. The  only  direct  appeal  to  mechanical  memorizing  was 
made  in  literature,  for  which  study  a  gi-eat  number  of  fine 
poems  were  learned,  recited,  dissected,  compared,'  changed 
into  prose,  imitated,  and,  I  must  say  it,  enjoyed. 

Shall  I  say  more  about  the  methods  applied  ?  It  is  scarce- 
ly necessary,  if  I  add  that  I  noticed  a  truly  enviable  una- 
nimity among  the  teachers  with  reference  to  their  modus 
operandi.  Though  each  teacher  is  permitted  to  follow  his 
own  methods,  there  seems  to  be  a  tacit  undei'standing  or 
agreement  to  work  into  each  other's  hands. 

4.  A  District  Conference. 

Rather  against  my  inclination,  I  went  a  little  out  of  my 
way  to  attend  a  meeting  of  a  teachers'  association  in  a  dis- 
trict of  Lower  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  I  do  not  rue  it,  for  it 
gave  me  a  novel  experience.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  one 
can  not  find  a  finer  and  more  intelligent-looking  body  of 
teachers  in  deliberation  anywhere,  unless  it  be  the  National 
Council  of  Educators  in  America,  a  body  which  looks  like 
the  Roman  senate.     One  thing  was  particularly  pleasing  to 


A  DISTRICT   CONFERENCK  23 

me :  There  was  no  talking  for  immediate  effect,  perhaps  be- 
cause ''''feminini  generis  "  being  non  est. 

The  three  papers  read  had  been  selected  by  a  majority 
vote  after  the  titles  of  all  on  the  programme  had  been  made 
public.  In  other  words,  the  body  chose  the  questions  it 
wanted  to  discuss,  and  permitted  him  "  who  was  primed  "  to 
have  the  first  say.  The  tliree  papei's  selected  were  "  Princi- 
ples versus  Practice,"  "  The  Scope  of  Arithmetic  in  the  Com- 
mon School,"  and  ''Education  in  America." 

The  first  essay  was  a  masterly  refutation  of  such  views  as 
found  utterance  in  our  country  \mder  the  captivating  cap- 
tion, "  The  Presumption  of  Brains."  It  would  have  done  me 
good  to  see  Superintendent  Marble  in  the  audience.  The 
essayist  perhaps  never  heard  of  this  gentleman,  but  it  seemed 
as  though  he  aimed  his  words  at  the  author  of  "  Presump- 
tion," etc.,  directly.  The  discussion  was  spirited,  but  a  vote 
of  sixty -three  to  five  sustained  the  position  held  by  the  es- 
sayist. 

The  second  essay  showed  that  the  question  lately  called 
up  by  G^eral  Walker  in  Boston  is  being  ventilated  in  Ger- 
many also ;  but  it  was  the  third  paper  which  challenged  my 
admiration.  The  i*eferee  spoke  of  our  American  common 
schools  with  a  remarkable  degree  of  familiarity,  and  proved 
that  he  had  the  geography  and  statistics  of  our  country  at 
his  fingers'  ends.  His  statistical  items  were  all  very  well 
sifted  and  true.  I  could  not  help  sighing  when  I  unwill- 
ingly compared  this  accurate  knowledge  of  America  on  the 
part  of  German  teachers  with  the  Egyptian  darkness  that  still 
prevails  in  American  educational  circles  about  Germany. 

Being  called  upon  to  address  the  meeting,  I  inquired 
whether  the  speaker  had  been  in  America,  that  he  was  en- 
abled to  thus  speak  of  the  American  schools  with  precision 
and  authority.  I  was  told,  however,  that  he  had  gathered 
his  data  from  publications  of  our  National  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion in  Washington ;  that  the  library  of  the  association  con- 
tained a  full  set  of  General  Eaton's  reports  and  sundry  other 
sources  of  information. 


24  DUISBURG  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

Again  I  had  to  stifle  a  sigh,  thinking  of  the  isolation  of 
thousands  of  our  teachers  in  America  who  can  be  made  to 
read  only  through  persuasion  and  by  the  Damocles's  sword 
of  an  approaching  examination.  The  men  present  at  this 
meeting  were  mostly  country  or  village  teachers.  They 
looked  highly  intellectual,  but  had  all  more  or  less  care- 
worn faces  and  seemed  to  labor  under  heavy  stress,  such  as 
overcrowded  school-rooms,  poor  pay,  and  perhaps  domestic 
cares. 

5.  History  Teaching. 

Perhaps  in  all  my  wanderings  through  the  schools  of  Eu- 
rope I  may  never  again  find  such  perfect  teaching  of  history 

as  I  found  in  a  school  of  D ,  in  Rhenish  Prussia.    Though 

it  is  impossible  to  render  the  lesson  in  writing,  I  will  at  least 
give  my  readers  an  inkling  of  it.  (Pardon  the  pun,  it  was 
an  unconscious  one.)  There  were  two  such  lessons :  one  was 
on  "  The  Great  Elector  of  Brandenburg,"  the  other  on  "  Ru- 
dolph of  Hapsburg."  These  lessons,  I  believe,  will  never 
fade  in  my  memory.  Each  was  a  masterpiece.  The  classes 
ranked  in  age  with  our  C  grammar  classes,  or  sixth  school 
year. 

First,  a  biographical  narrative  was  given  by  the  teacher, 
who  spoke  in  very  simple,  appropriate  language,  but  feel- 
ingly with  the  glow  of  enthusiasm  and  the  chest-tone  of 
conviction.  He  made  each  pupil  identify  himself  with  the 
hero  of  the  story.  The  map  was  frequently  used  or  referred 
to.  Bits  of  poetry,  taken  from  the  reader,  were  interwoven, 
and  circumstances  of  our  time,  as  well  as  persons  of  very 
recent  history,  were  mentioned  at  proper  occasions.  The 
attention  was  breathless. 

Secondly,  the  story  was  then  repeated  by  pupils  who 
were  now  and  then  interrupted  by  leading  questions.  The 
answers  were  again  used  to  develop  new  thoughts  not 
brought  out  by  the  first  narration.  Particularly  was  it 
cause  and  eflFect,  and  the  moral  value  of  certain  historical 
actions  which  claimed  the  attention  of  the  teacher.    To  me 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  THIS  METHOD.  25 

it  was  very  instructive  to  see  these  children  search  for  analo- 
gous cases  in  human  life  as  they  knew  it. 

Thirdly ^  the  pupils  were  led  to  search  in  their  stores  of 
historical  knowledge  for  analogous  cases,  or  cases  of  decided 
contrast.  This  gave  me  an  insight  into  the  extent  of  their 
knowledge.  When,  for  instance,  certain  civil  virtues  were 
spoken  of,  they  mentioned  cases  which  revealed  a  very  laud- 
able familiarity  with  history.  But  all  their  knowledge  had 
been  grouped  around  a  number  of  centers — that  is,  great 
men.  That  is  to  say,  their  historical  knowledge  had  been 
gained  through  biographies. 

Fourthly,  the  pupils  were  told  to  write,  in  a  connected 
narration,  what  they  had  just  learned.  This  proved  a  fer- 
tile composition  exercise,  because  the  pupils  had  something 
to  write  about — a  thing  that  is  not  quite  so  frequent  in 
schools  as  it  seems  desirable.  I  afterward  asked  the  teacher 
for  his  principles  of  method  in  teaching  history,  and  he  gave 
them  to  me  at  length.    The  following  is  an  epitome  of  them : 

6.  The  Principles  of  this  Method. 

It  must  be  the  aim  of  instruction  in  history  to  nourish 
and  strengthen  all  the  powers  of  the  soul,  interest,  emotion, 
and  volition,  so  that  the  harmonious  development  of  the 
child  be  assisted  and  a  general  interest  awakened. 

The  pupil's  intellect  is  increased  by  making  him  familiar 
with  historical  deeds,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  they 
were  done,  with  their  causes  and  effects,  with  various  con- 
ditions of  life,  with  persons  as  they  are  mirrored  in  their 
deeds,  with  the  development  of  the  character  of  persons  and 
that  of  nations.  The  intellect  is  particularly  nourished  by 
affording  comparisons  and  making  distinctions ;  by  causing 
keen  judgment  and  correct  conclusions.  By  means  of  all 
these,  the  pupil's  thinking  power  is  stimulated  and  an  in- 
sight into  political  and  governmental  relations  past  and 
present  is  gained,  which  is  important  alike  for  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  state. 

The  pupil's  heart  is  influenced  by  instruction  in  history, 


26  DUISBURG  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

because  many  great,  sublime,  noble,  and  beautiful  actions 
and  motives  are  presented,  which  cause  pleasure  and  lead  to 
imitation,  unconsciously  to  the  pupil.  Again,  because  his- 
toi*y  shows,  in  some  abominable  examples,  that  evil  is  pun- 
ished as  well  as  the  good  rewarded;  that  justice,  though 
slow  sometimes,  will  overtake  the  evil-doer. 

The  pupil's  willpower  is  greatly  stimulated  by  instruc- 
tion in  history,  because  he  is  warmed  and  inspired  by  truth, 
right,  and  duty,  for  love  of  country  and  his  fellow-men.  He 
receives  an  impetus  to  imitate  great  deeds.  He  takes  in 
some  of  that  spirit  w^hich  prompts  men  to  act  nobly  and 
grandly.  The  fountain  of  emotion  is  the  best  fountain  of 
volition. 

There  are,  however,  some  absolutely  necessary  condi- 
tions: 1.  That  the  teacher  of  history  be  a  person  whose  heart 
is  full  of  patriotism,  and  beats  strongly  for  truth,  right,  and 
duty.  To  him  should  be  said,  "Take  thy  shoes  from  otf 
thy  feet,  for  the  ground  upon  which  thou  standest  is  holy 
ground.-'  2.  That  the  instruction  be  not  a  mere  recital  of 
names  and  dates,  of  battles  and  acquisitions  of  land,  nor  dis- 
sertations upon  abstract  ideas  and  generalities,  but,  above 
all,  a  simple  narration  of  deeds  and  events,  and  a  glowing 
description  of  persons  and  circumstances.  It  must  be  bio- 
graphical. The  most  interesting  and  most  ennobling  study 
for  children  is  the  lives  of  great  men.  Biography  is  the 
first  step  in  our  historical  course. 

It  is  necessary,  3.  That  the  teacher  connect  the  new  his- 
torical knowledge  with  circumstances  and  conditions,  such 
as  are  either  known  to  the  pupil,  or  are'near  enough  at  hand 
to  draw  them  into  the  discussion.  Relics  and  other  tangible 
objects,  suitable  for  illustration,  should  be  brought  into  the 
class-room,  if  only  in  pictures.  The  teacher  must  be  so  ob- 
jective in  his  narratives  that  the  events  and  creations  are 
not  only  npoken  of,  but  become  experiences  by  natural  pro- 
cess of  thought.  4.  The  pupil  should  not  bo  allowed  to 
remain  receptive,  but  must  be  induced  to  be  active  in  this 
study.     In  this,  as  in  other  studies,  practice  is  wanted.     The 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION   IN   DRAWING.  27 

pupils  must  be  called  upon  to  reproduce,  orally  and  in  writ- 
ing, the  matter  given  them  and  the  thoughts  produced  in 
them. 

It  is  necessary,  5.  That  the  teacher  should  induce  his 
pupils  to  compare  similar  and  dissimilar  actions  and  per- 
sons, and  thereby  cause  judgment  upon  cause  and  effect 
from  a  moral  or  ethical  standpoint,  so  that  not  merely  the 
intellect  be  developed,  but  also  the  heai't  and  the  will.  Their 
practical  interest  is  then  generated  without  repressing  their 
speculative  interest.  6.  That  instruction  in  history  be 
brought  into  organic  connection  with  the  study  of  lan- 
guage; for  this  reason,  reading  is  to  be  brought  in  as  an 
assistant.  Recitations  of  patriotic  poems  and  ballads  can  be 
woven  in  pi-ofitably,  and  that  geography  must  aid  history  is 
self-evident. 

During  the  first  three  yeare  of  school,  biblical  stories, 
references  to  public  men,  holidays  and  festivals,  legends  and 
stories,  and  a  few  biographical  attempts  are  the  pi*oper  mat- 
ter there.  After  that,  a  biographical  history  should  begin, 
which  may  widen  with  each  succeeding  year,  so  that  the 
historical  horizon  of  the  child  is  extended  simultaneously 
with  that  in  other  studies. 

If  the  common  school  gives  that  kind  of  instruction 
in  histoid — it  need  not  be  great  in  amount — it  is  doing 
much  better  than  teaching  higher  arithmetic  and  book- 
keeping. 

7.  Practical  Instruction  in  Drawing. 

I  doubt  not,  that  it  will  be  of  interest  to  many  teachers 
in  the  Union  to  learn  how  drawing  is  taught  here  in  city 
schools.  Tliis  branch  of  ''  study  "  has  so  recently  been  in- 
troduced into  the  American  schools,  or  rather,  it  has  been 
made  an  obligatory  branch  of  the  curriculum  so  recently, 
that  it  may  be  said  to  be  still  in  its  infancy  with  us.  Here, 
in  Germany,  drawing,  as  a  branch  of  study,  is  much  older, 
and  more  can,  therefore,  be  expected,  and  better  results  should 
be  exhibited.     But,  to  speak  candidly,  when  comparing  the 


28 


DUISBUKG  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 


/ 


\ 

y 

7\ 
} 

\ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

N 

y 

? 

\ 

-\. 

/                    \ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

'  \ 

/ 

Series  I,— Figs,  8-17, 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  DRAWING. 


29 


drawings  exhibited  in  New  Orleans,  Madison,  Topeka,  and 
Chicago,  with  what  I  find  here  in  crowded  class-rooms, 
whei^e  seventy  and  more  pupils  are  seated,  I  can  not  say  that 


Figs.  18-26. 


the  work  is  better,  certainly  not  as  showy.  A  standard  of 
measurement  is  wanting  for  a  true  comparison.  Still,  de- 
spite the  absence  of  glittering  results  and  show,  I  suspect, 


/ 


30 


DUISBURG  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 


/ 

/ 

} 

JS — \. 


^ 

.^^ — V 


\ 

^ 

_^ — V 


Skhibs  IX.— Fios.  87-37. 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION   IN   DRAWING.  31 


Z" 


71 


/ 


7 

K 


V  M 

Sebim  XIII.— Figs.  38-46. 


S2  DUISBURG  (RDENISII   PRUSSIA). 

noro  results  en  masse,  and  a  more  general  and  deeper  culi 
ure  are  obtained  here. 

Perhaps  I  may  with  impunity  say,  also,  that  instruction 
in  drawing  here  in  Prussia  is  more  practical.  In  order  to 
prove  this,  I  will  say  that  I  found  drawing  of  objects  quite 
frequently.  The  objects  used  as  models  are  furnished  by  a 
Hamburg  firm.  They  are  made  of  hard  wood,  and  are  so 
plentifully  furnished  that  there  is  one  for  every  two  or  three 
pupils.  Each  pupil  draws  the  object  as  he  sees  it — that  is,  in 
the  position  in  which  it  is  placed  before  him.  I  can  not 
explain  this  better  than  by  copying  a  number  of  series 
drawn  by  classes  in  my  presence.  The  models  were  all  the 
same  in  size,  given  to  the  classes  that  day  as  new  subjects. 
The  work  was  free-hand  drawing,  and  as  such  very  credita- 
ble. I  copied  the  accompanying  sketches,  omitting  all  con- 
struction lines.  They  are  here  offered  on  a  smaller  scale,  so 
as  to  permit  their  insertion  in  this  book. 

The  series  I  and  IX  are  the  two  extremes,  so  far  as  diffi- 
culty in  representing  is  concerned.  Their  simplicity  cer- 
tainly speaks  for  thera.  I  found  them  used  as  models  for 
drawing,  for  clay -modeling,  pasteboard  work,  wood  chiseling 
and  sawing  in  manual  training  schools.  Before  I  dismiss 
this  subject,  I  must  not  neglect  to  say  that  the  girls  are  ex- 
cluded from  this  drawing  of  solids.  They  draw  convention- 
alized leaf  and  plant  forms,  and  learn  their  application  in 
knitting,  crocheting,  embroidering,  lace-making,  and  weav- 
ing. Leaves  pasted  on  cardboard  are  used  in  great  number, 
and  forms  of  beauty  of  no  mean  kind  are  the  result.  The 
reader  is  referred  to  pages  123-134,  where  the  girls'  industrial 
education  is  spoken  of  at  length. 

8.  Learning  to  shade  in  Drawing. 

Being  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  practicability  of  in- 
struction in  drawing  solids,  I  was  pleased  to  find  my  opinion 
shared  by  many  teachers  in  Germany.  The  difficulty  which 
seems  to  puzzle  many  teachers  is,  to  find  suitable  objects, 
simple  enough  to  avoid  the  great  obstacle,  which  consists 


LEARNING   TO  SUADE   IN   DRAWING. 


> 


S 


X. 


34  DUISBURG  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

in  the  pupils  not  seeing  the  covered  lines.  The  solids  used 
here  are  so  simple  that  they  are  admirably  adapted  for  the 
elementary  schools. 

After  a  body  is  conceived  in  outlines  the  shading  begins, 
and  this  is  done  by  using  casts,  a  copy  of  which  is  inserted 
on  page  33,  A  very  strong  light  is  allowed  to  fall  from 
the  left  on  the  cast,  which  is  hung  up  on  the  blackboard. 
The  dark  background  makes  the  white  cast  shine,  as  it  were, 
and  the  shadows  on  the  cast  are  distinctly  seen.  I  have 
provided  myself  with  sufficient  copies  of  pupils'  work  to 
prove  that  this  drawing  of  solids  is  possible  in  the  element- 
ary schools.  One  glance  at  page  33  will  suffice  to  convince 
the  reader  that  these  casts  are  easily  obtainable.  Indeed, 
any  person  may  model  them  in  clay,  and  then  cast  them,  by 
setting  the  models  in  a  frame  and  pouring  plaster  over  them. 
When  the  plaster  is  dry  and  hard  it  can  be  separated  from 
the  model,  and  a  new  cast  may  be  made.  In  some  schools  I 
found  the  models  made  of  clay  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

The  system  in  use  here  is  decidedly  more  practical  than 
others  I  saw  in  use  in  France,  inasmuch  as  it  deals  with 
only  a  limited  number  of  objects,  and  never  leaves  out  of 
sight  the  fact  that  the  common  school  is,  and  can  only  be, 
an  elementary  school.  It  proves  immortal  Goethe's  maxim : 
"In  der  Beschrankung  zeigt  sich  der  Meister." 

The  method  of  shading  is  different  in  different  schools, 
sometimes  even  in  different  classes  of  the  same  school. 
While  some  teachers  used  lines  of  various  thickness  to  repre- 
sent shadow,  others,  by  far  the  majority,  use  the  leather 
stump.  The  reader  is  also  referred  to  pages  233-235,  and 
272-281,  where  the  results  and  methods  of  drawing  in  other 
German  schools  are  shown.  In  Chapter  XII,  Paris,  the 
French  mode  of  procedure  in  drawing  is  stated. 

9.  Female  Teachers  in  Germany. 

Though  I  spent  several  weeks  in  German  schools,  I  had 
only  heard  men  teach.  But  one  day  I  heard  two  ladies 
teach,  and  model  lessons  they  gave.     The  first  was  a  lesson 


FEMALE   TEACHERS   IN   GERMANY.  35 

in  reading,  according  to  the  word  and  phonic  method  com- 
bined, or,  to  speak  scientifically,  the  analytic-synthetic  meth- 
od. An  object-lesson  on  "fish"  introduced  the  reading. 
When  that  was  closed,  oral  splitting  of  the  word  fish  into 
sounds  followed.  The  teacher  pronounced  the  word  slow- 
ly, thus  bringing  out  each  sound  clearly,  so  that  the  little 
urchins  could  recognize  and  separate  them.  Then  the  word 
was  written,  copied,  and  other  words  were  made  of  material 
(sounds  and  letters)  previously  learned,  till  at  the  close  of  the 
lesson  a  great  number  of  new  words  were  read  and  learned. 
These  were  combined  into  little  sentences. 

The  second  lesson  I  heard  a  lady  give  was  in  religion. 
The  topic  was  the  announcement  or  prophecy  of  Christ's 
birth  to  Mary,  the  pious  virgin.  The  children  were  on  an 
average  eight  years  old,  and  the  teacher  a  young,  sweet- 
looking  girl.  I  assure  my  readers  that,  though  the  teacher 
proceeded  with  laudable  tact  and  much  pedagogical  skill, 
the  lesson  left  an  unsavory  taste,  there  being  too  much  cant 
in  it  to  please  me. 

As  a  rule,  the  women  teachers  ia  Germany,  I  am  told, 
teach  well  in  the  lower  grades,  and  only  there.  Middle  and 
higher  grades  of  school  are  closed  to  them.  During  the 
grand  upward  start  which  business  took  in  Grermany  after 
the  re-establishment  of  the  empire,  so  many  men  left  the 
school-room  to  join  the  chase  after  the  golden  calf,  that  the 
Government  was  obliged  to  engage  women  to  teach  school. 
At  present  they  are  numbered  by  the  thousand. 

I  inquired  whether  they  could  not  be  promoted,  and  in 
due  time  be  elected  principals.  The  inspector  with  whom  I 
conversed  on  the  subject  of  women  teachers  replied  with  a 
holy  (or  shall  I  say  unholy  ?)  horror:  "  No,  never,  as  long 
as  the  father  is  the  head  of  the  family.  It  would  be  as  un- 
natural as  crowing  hens.  A  weak,  indulgent  man  may  sur- 
render his  breeches  to  his  wife ;  such  cases  are  found,  of 
course,  but  these  exceptions  do  not  shake,  but  confirm  the 
rule.  Besides,  the  Government  is  fully  aware  that  the  women 
can  not  govern  the  men,  a  thing  which  they  would  have 


36  DUISBURG   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

to  do  if  they  were  made  the  heads  of  schools.  Such  a  thing 
would  be  contrary  to  all  precedents,  and  to  the  eternal  fit- 
ness of  things,  as  conceived  by  us  Germans." 

Having  thus  given  me  a  bit  of  his  own  mind,  he  snatched 
up  a  paper  containing  extracts  from  a  recent  novel  by 
Walter  Besant,  saying,  "  Here  is  an  Englishman  with  whom 
I  fully  agree."    I  quote : 

"  There  are  many  points  of  distinction  between  the  mas- 
culine and  the  feminine  mind;  as,  that  the  woman  is  not 
happy  unless  she  is  quite  sure  and  certain,  and  that  the  man 
gets  along  very  comfortably  under  a  sense  of  uncertainty ; 
also,  that  any  man  who  disagrees  with  a  woman  is,  to  her, 
an  utterly  contemptible  person,  while  to  a  man,  he  is  only  a 
person  with  a  curious  mental  twist.  But  the  most  distinct- 
ive of  all  these  points  is,  that  a  woman  never  invents  any- 
thing, or  wants  to  change  anything,  or  to  improve  any 
methods  or  ways  of  doing  things.  In  order  to  illustrate  this 
proposition,  consider  the  common  house-maid,  the  common 
household  cook,  and  the  household  nurse-maid.  The  first 
of  these  has  never  been  known  to  show  the  smallest  inven- 
tion in  the  laying  of  a  fire,  nor  the  second  in  constructing  a 
dish,  nor  the  third  in  dressing  a  baby." 

His  own  metaphors  dissuaded  me  as  little  as  this  quota- 
tion did,  of  the  natural  right  of  women  to  rise  and  lake  a 
hand  in  the  government  of  the  world ;  and  that  the  school, 
as  a  world  in  miniature,  is  the  proper  place  for  women  to 
begin  to  show  their  executive  and  administrative  powers. 
But,  being  on  my  guest-behavior,  I  changed  the  subject. 
Strange,  however,  but  true  it  is,  that  from  the  moment  I  had 
asked  that  question,  I  was  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and 
the  confidence  of  the  otherwise  pleasant  and  kindly-spoken 
man  was  as  though  it  had  dried  up. 

How  deep-rooted  the  prejudice  against  female  teachers  is 
here  in  Gennany  may  be  seen,  also,  from  the  fact  that  the 
male  teachers  club  together  in  the  yard  during  recess,  leav- 
ing the  ladies  to  amuse  themselves.  Oh,  yes,  they  speak  to 
them,  and  politely  salute  them  by  uncovering  their  heads 


TENURE   OF  OFFICE,  37 

"  as  they  pass  by,"  but  no  professional  discussion,  no  social 
conversation,  not  even  a  bit  of  small  talk,  takes  place.  All 
such  professional  ties  seem  to  be  forbidden  by  an  unwritten 
but  well-understood  law.  I  leave  my  readei-s  to  draw  their 
own  conclusions. 

10.  Tenure  of  Office. 

There  is  one  feature  of  the  German  schools  which  de- 
serves attention  and  imitation — I  mean  the  stability  of  the 
teacher's  position.  After  he  has  completed  his  course  in  the 
normal  school,  he  is  assigned  to  duty  somewhere  or  elected 
by  a  community  for  a  two  years'  probation.  Whether  he 
has  succeeded  well  or  not,  at  the  end  of  this  time  he  is  called 
u|K)ii  to  pass  his  "repetition  examination."  Having  passed 
that,  he  is  free  from  all  further  examinations,  and  can  settle 
down  permanently,  since  his  position  is  not  endangered  by 
political  rotation  or  any  other  causes,  except  his  own  erroi*s, 
such  as  neglect  of  duty,  etc. 

He  lives  either  in  the  school-house  or  in  a  neighboring 
dwelling,  fitted  up  by  the  community  as  the  "  schoolmaster's 
house,"  as  a  parsonage  is  fitted  up  for  the  parson  by  the 
church  authorities.  Being  thus  safely  housed,  and  having 
no  such  Damocles's  sword  as  a  change  in  the  political  com- 
plexion of  the  school  board  to  fear  (in  fact,  there  is  no  school 
board),  his  future  is  assured.  Now  he  naturally  begins  to 
"  gather  moss,"  like  a  stone  safely  imbe<ided  in  the  loam  of 
the  woods.  By  that,  I  mean,  he  increases  his  library,  and 
devotes  his  leisure  hours  to  some  hobby.  Some  teachers 
resort  to  agiiculture  or  floriculture  (every  school-house  in 
small  towns  or  villages  has  a  few  acres  of  land  for  garden- 
ing purposes) ;  some  raise  silk-worms  or  bees,  or  stait  a  nur- 
sery of  trees;  others  make  collections  of  beetles,  butterflies, 
and  minerals.  Again,  others  resort  to  some  kind  of  manual 
labor,  such  as  turning,  scroll-saw  working.  A  great  many 
choose  literature  as  their  leisure-hour  occupation.  Nearly 
all  foster  music,  and  act  as  musical  directors  and  conductors 
of  choirs  and  as  organists  in  churches. 


38  DUISBURG   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

In  short,  they  "  gather  moss "  like  an  ancient  pike  in  a 
well-stocked  carp-pond.  This  stability  of  office  engenders 
a  good  deal  of  conservatism,  which,  queer  as  it  may  seem, 
rarely  manifests  itself  in  their  methods  of  teaching ;  for  local, 
district,  provincial,  state,  and  national  teachers' -meetings, 
an  educational  press  of  most  formidable  powers,  frequent 
visits  of  royal  school  commissioners,  and  the  competition 
engendered  by  friendly  visits  of  colleagues,  prevent  a  stag- 
nation in  school. 

Being  curious  to  know  the  political  proclivities  of  an  old 
friend  of  mine,  who  had  become  a  fixture  in  a  small  town 
of  Rhenish  Prussia,  I  frankly  asked  him.  Said  he:  "Do 
you  know  that  the  Roman  citizen  was  a  Roman  first,  and 
a  Roman  last ;  right  or  wrong,  he  was  a  Roman  forever  ? 
Well,  my  friend,  I  am  teacher  first,  last,  and  all  the  time." 
I  accepted  this  circumlocution  for  the  term  "mugwump," 
and  changed  the  subject. 

11,  Miscellaneous  Notes. 

An  Idyl. — Curiosity  induced  me  to  visit  the  place  in  the 
country  where  I  gained  my  first  experience  in  teaching.  It 
was  a  pretty  little  village,  situated  between  two  industrial 
centers,  and  inhabited  by  vegetable  gardeners,  who  had  an 
average  of  ten  or  fifteen  acres  of  land,  rarely  more.  The 
village  had  not  changed  materially  within  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  The  half  of  a  millstone  in  front  of  the  school- 
house,  serving  as  a  doorstep,  was  still  there,  and  through  its 
square  aperture  grew  the  grass  as  it  did  twenty-five  years 
ago.  The  school-house  was  as  dilapidated  as  it  was  then, 
only  a  little  more  so.  The  church  tower  had  received  a  new 
coat  of  slate,  a  few  new  houses  had  been  built,  others  had 
been  repaired.  The  same  fine  linden-trees  offered  shadow  to 
the  school-yard ;  and,  indeed,  the  picturesque  village  seemed 
to  have  slept  the  sleep  of  the  Sleeping  Beauty,  while  within 
sight  of  the  top  of  the  steeple  industrial  centers  had  grown 
from  twenty  thousand  to  eighty  thousand  inhabitants  within 
that  time. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES.  39 

The  principal  teacher,  however,  was  a  difiFerent  sort  of 
man  from  the  morose  fellow  who  used  to  hold  sway  there 
and  made  my  life  unbearable.  The  American  can  not 
imagine  how  peaceful  the  life  of  a  German  country  school- 
master is.  He  is  secure  in  his  position.  Nothing  but  mis- 
conduct or  gross  neglect  of  duty  on  his  part  can  remove 
him.  He  has  no  rent  to  pay,  but  lives  in  the  upper  stories 
of  the  school-building,  whei*e  he  has  from  five  to  eight  rooms 
and  a  high  garret.  Usually  a  large  garden  is  at  his  disposal. 
Let  me  tell  you  of  the  present  incumbent. 

This  teacher's  life  is  a  perfect  idyl.  His  young  assistants 
worship  him,  his  pupils  love  him,  his  fellow -villagers  respect 
him,  call  for  his  pinident  advice,  and,  what  is  more,  believe 
in  it  implicitly.  He  is  the  universally  respected  arbiter  in 
all  questions  of  dispute,  and  is  welcomed  in  every  house  of 
the  village.  In  his  leisure  hours  he  is  a  gardener,  and  the 
culture  of  roses  is  his  special  hobby.  I  have  seen  many  fine 
collections  of  roses  in  my  life—  I  even  dabble  a  little  in  that 
line  myself — but  my  astonishment  was  boundless  when  I  saw 
the  results  of  this  man's  patient  labor.  Thousands  of  varie- 
ties of  roses,  hundreds  of  colors  and  sizes,  from  the  lovely 
carnation  centifolia  and  orange  Marshal  Neil  to  the  dwarfed 
pink-colored  May  rose  and  yellow  Lilliput  rose — all  were 
there. 

His  young  assistants  and  his  elder  pupils  vie  with  each 
other  in  helping  him  in  his  work  of  floriculture,  so  that 
there  is  nothing  left  for  him  to  do  but  to  direct  and  super- 
vise. But  he  never  forgets  that  he  is  teacher  first  and  gar- 
dener afterward.  First  duty,  then  pleasure.  The  man  is 
about  fifty  years  old,  and  is  not  married.  A  housekeeper 
from  the  village  attends  to  the  duties  indoors.  Though  this 
idyllic  picture  is  rather  out  of  place  in  this  book,  I  could  not 
refrain  from  painting  it,  to  show  our  American  country 
teachers  what  is  in  store  for  them  if  they  will  agitate  the 
question  of  tenure  of  office  more  vigorously. 

Herbart  versus  Pestalozzi. — There  is  a  war  carried  on 
here  in  Germany  at  present  between  the  disciples  of  Pesta- 


40  DUISBURG   (RHENISU   PRUSSIA). 

lozzi  and  those  of  Herbart — a  war  which  promises  to  be  more 
beneficial  than  destructive.  My  American  readers  can  not 
conceive  of  the  intensity  and  earnestness  displayed  by  the 
combatants.  Here  in  Rhenish  Prussia  the  "  Herbartians  " 
are  holding  meetings,  discussing  Herbart's  and  Ziller's  prin- 
ciples and  methods,  and  the  bookstalls  are  full  of  pamphlets, 
books,  and  journals,  which  all  refer  to  the  question  at  issue. 
Elsewhere,  I  am  told,  the  same  question  is  agitating  the 
minds  of  teachers,  notably  in  Thuringia  and  Saxony. 

I  attended  a  meeting  of  the  "Herbartians,"  to  which 
representatives  of  Diisseldorf,  Crefeld,  Duisburg,  Miihlheim, 
Essen,  Elberfeld,  Barmen,  Solingen,  Gladbach,  and  many 
other  towns  had  been  sent.  I  was  deeply  impressed  with 
the  profundity  with  which  Herbart's  psychology  and  Ziller's 
concentric  circles  were  discussed  from  three  till  after  eight 
o'clock,  P.  M.  What  pleased  me  most  was  the  absence  of  all 
personal  wrangling,  and  not  a  word  of  disresj^ect  to  Pesta- 
lozzi  and  other  educational  reformers  fell  from  the  li])S  of 
the  speakers.  My  interest  grew  amazingly  when  I  exam- 
ined the  shelves  of  a  bookstall  later  and  found  no  less 
than  sixty  books,  pamphlets,  and  exercise-books  of  very 
recent  origin  all  discussing  and  exemplifying  the  "great 
question."  Well,  I  own  that  I  left  the  book-store  with  an 
armful  of  pamphlets  and  books,  and  poorer  by  thirty-five 
;xiarks. 

In  the  face  of  such  literary  activity,  such  thorough  scien- 
tific discussion,  I  heave  a  deep  sigh,  thinking  of  the  peace- 
ful mental  slumber  of  thousands  of  our  American  teachers, 
who  do  not  even  read  an  educational  journal,  and  at  edu- 
cational gatherings  have  nothing  to  say,  but  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  read  to  by  essayists,  and  in  the  school-room  do 
merely  what  they  are  ordered  to  do.  I  shall  not  venture  to 
enter  upon  the  discussion  of  the  disputed  question  until  I 
have  seen  the  schools  of  Saxony  and  Thuringia,  and  have 
studied  my  armful  of  books.  I  am  like  that  German  pro- 
fessor who  was  asked  for  his  opinion  on  a  question  which 
he  had  never  approached.    His  answer  was,  "  I've  got  to  read 


THE  WHOLE  NATION   A   SCHOOL.  41 

a  lecture  on  that  question  before  I  can  answer  you."    So, 
then,  more  anon. 

Hospitality  of  Teachers. — It  is  no  more  than  simple 
justice  to  state  that  I  have  found  a  hospitality  among  the 
teachers  here  which  can  nowhere  be  found  in  like  manner 
except  in  America.  In  America,  especially  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  and  in  the  South,  hospitality  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
nounced virtues  of  the  people,  and  I  know  whereof  I  am 
speaking,  having  traveled  much  in  America,  and  having 
had  opportunities  to  compare  French,  Dutch,  and  German 
customs  with  our  American  customs.  Wherever  I  go  here 
in  Germany  I  find  among  teachers  a  truly  American  hos- 
pitality which  it  is  difficult  to  resist.  I  deem  it  just  and 
proper  to  state  this  fact  in  my  reports  to  my  American 
brethren. 


CHAPTER  III. 

dusseldorf  (rhenish  prussia). 

1.  The  Whole  Nation  a  School. 

My  admiration  for  the  schools  in  Germany  grows  when 
I  notice  the  consistent  help  different  institutions  for  edu- 
cational and  scientific  purposes  are  rendering  each  other. 
Thus,  for  instance,  I  see  in  Dusseldorf  on  the  Rhine  that 
the  common  schools,  as  well  as  the  several  high-schools  (the 
Gymnasium,  Realschule,  and  Young  Ladies'  Academy), 
stand  in  close  connection  and  intimate  relation  to  the  man- 
agement of  the  Art  Academy,  the  Art  Museum,  the  Zoologi- 
cal and  Botanical  Garden,  the  Observatorj',  the  libraries, 
the  gymnastic  aacieties,  and  even  the  theatre,  in  fact,  with 
every  institution  which  in  some  degree  may  be  influential  in 
assisting  the  work  in  school. 

Plants  are  ordered  for  the  study  of  botany  at  the  Botan- 
ical Garden.    Certain  hours  are  fixed  at  the  Zoological  Gar- 


42  DCSSELDORF   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

den  for  visits  of  the  classes  in  zoology  ;  admission  free. 
Classes  in  drawing  are  taken  to  the  art  collections  and  muse- 
ums, where  the  teacher  of  advanced  classes  gives  a  lesson 
monthly.  The  libraries  are  open  to  the  pupils  on  presenta- 
tion of  a  membership  ticket  issued  by  the  rector  of  the 
school.  Classes  in  hterature  go  with  then*  teachers  to  see 
classic  performances  in  the  theatre.  The  schools  having 
small  but  very  valuable  collections  frequently  exchange 
specimens  with  the  cui-ator  of  the  museum  or  even  make 
loans.  And  so  on,  to  every  department  of  the  curriculum, 
some  institution  outside  of  school  offers  assistance  free  of 
charge. 

The  more  I  look  about  me  here  in  Germany,  the  more  am 
I  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  whole  nation  is  one  great 
educational  institution.  Churches  have  their  reserved  seats 
for  school  children ;  theatres  offer  classic  performances  for 
students  ;  gardens  and  parks  are  open  to  children  ;  play- 
grounds are  provided  with  flower-beds  for  children;  gym- 
nastic halls  and  apparatus  are  erected  for  the  use  of  pupils 
of  the  city  schools ;  in  fine,  all  efforts  are  made  to  put  public 
instruction  upon  a  rational  basis  and  to  make  education  con- 
tagious. We  Americans  have  much  to  learn  from  these 
"barbarians." 

2.  Singing  in  German  Schools. 

Ah,  but  what  an  inexhaustible  spring  of  musical  talent  is 
found  in  German  schools  !  These  children  sing  divinely. 
Their  teachers  all  play  the  violin  more  or  less  well  and  have 
a  thorough  theoretical  training  in  music,  teach  the  notes, 
and  generally  conduct  the  musical  performances  of  their 
classes  as  leaders  of  orchestras  do  instrumental  music — that 
is  to  say,  they  beat  time,  keep  the  different  parts  in  har- 
mony, stimulate  here,  depress  there,  and  .work  like  good 
fellows.  The  results  are  touchingly  beautiful.  I  heard 
three-  and  four-part  music  in  the  upper  grades  of  common 
schools. 

Many  a  time  I  heard  the  teacher  call  upon  a  single  pupil 


A   NOVEL   EXERCISE   IN   MUSIC.  43 

to  sing  alone,  as  we  should  expect  him  to  read  alone.  They 
consider  this  reciting  in  music.  In  one  city  on  the  Lower 
Rhine  I  heard  a  mass-chorus  which  touched  me  to  the  quick. 
The  children  sang  patriotic  airs  with  an  artistic  finish  which 
quite  upset  me.  An  old  gentleman  who  had  accompanied 
me  was  moved  to  tears. 

Our  American  city  schools  are  doing  a  noble  thing  in 
awakening  the  musical  sense  of  the  nation.  The  adult 
American,  as  a  rule,  is  not  musical.  General  Grant  used  to 
say:  "I  know  but  two  tunes.  One  is  'Yankee  Doodle,'  and 
the  other — isn't."  And  if  we  were  to  inquire  among  our 
Anglo-American  friends,  we  should  find  that  the  older  gen- 
eration is  not  any  more  musically  inclined  than  General 
Grant.  But  in  the  younger  generation  a  great  love  and 
comprehension  for  music  makes  itself  felt,  which  is  fostered 
by  easy  melodious  home-made  airs  such  as  "  Grandfather's 
Clock,"  "  Wait  till  the  Clouds  Roll  By,"  etc.  Inferior  as 
these  airs  may  be,  it  wUl  not  do  to  undervalue  their  great 
influence  upon  the  latent  musical  talent  of  our  American 
conglomerate.  Some  generations  may  yet  pass  away  before 
we  can  find  such  a  school  in  New  England  as  I  saw  here, 
where,  among  four  hundred  and  eighteen  pupils,  only  two 
were  found  without  a  musical  ear. 

3.  A  Novel  Exercise  in  Music, 

I  noticed  a  novel  exercise  in  vocal  music  which  I  deem 
worthy  of  mention.  The  teacher  wrote  the  lines  of  a  pretty 
little  poem  on  the  musical  staff  painted  on  the  board  and 
called  upon  certain  pupils  to  compose  a  new  melody.  The 
first  pupil  looked  at  the  first  line  thoughtfully  awhile,  and 
then  struck  out,  giving  a  very  acceptable  air.  The  teacher 
asked  her  to  repeat  it,  and  then  fixed  it  by  writing  it  in 
notes.  The  second  pupil  then  followed  with  a  continuation 
which  was  less  acceptable.  Another  suggested  a  little  but 
vital  improvement  which  made  the  line  much  more  accept- 
able. Again  a  new  line  was  added,  till  the  four  lines  were 
finished.     Now  the  teacher  played  the  tune,  suggesting  two 


44:  DtJSSELDORF  (RIIENISU   PRUSSIA). 

more,  tliough  slight  changes,  and  indeed  the  melody  seemed 
very  pretty. 

Now  it  was  harmonized.  A  pupil  was  called  upoa  to 
write  the  second  part  (the  alto).  This  he  did,  with  some  er- 
rors, which  were  speedily  detected  by  other  pupils.  An- 
other added  a  third  part  (the  tenor).  Of  course,  this  took 
longer  than  it  takes  me  to  write  about  it ;  but  within  the 
short  space  of  thirty-five  minutes  the  three  parts  were  all 
down  on  the  board.  They  were  tested  on  the  violin  and 
found  to  harmonize  quite  well.  Now  followed  a  grand 
rehearsal — that  is,  the  class  sang  the  newly  composed  song. 
Again  a  few  changes  were  found  desirable,  and  again  it  was 
tried,  till  it  met  the  approval  of  the  teacher.  There  was 
no  need  of  attention  to  the  order  of  the  room.  The  ordei 
was  perfect,  simply  because  all  the  pupils  were  intensely  in- 
terested. The  lesson  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  request 
to  copy  the  new  song  into  their  manuscript  music-books.  ] 
have  rarely  enjoyed  a  singing  lesson  as  much  as  I  did  this 
one. 

The  school  in  which  this  brilliant  theoretical  instruction 
in  music  was  witnessed  gave  me  the  pleasure  of  hearing 
choruses  of  wonderful  sweetness.  The  text  was  sung  sc 
well,  emphasis  or  expression  was  so  excellently  brought  out 
that  no  professional  choir  could  sing  better.  The  fresh  me 
tallic  sound  in  the  voices  of  these  German  youngsters  is 
quite  enjoyable. 

4.  "Nature-Description." 

Don't  frown  at  this  heading,  fair  reader.  I  have  put  il 
down  for  a  reason.  Our  English  terra  "  natural  history  "  is 
faulty,  inasmuch  as  it  is  anything  but  history,  so  far  as  w( 
teach  it  in  the  common  school.  Whatever  criticism  may  Ix 
urged  against  the  teachers  here  -  :n  Germany,  they  can  noi 
be  said  to  be  hazy  in  their  technical  terms.  They  do  no: 
use  such  terms  as  botany,  zoology,  physiology,  but  Grermai 
translations  which,  while  they  are  more  precise,  at  the  sam< 
time  convey  a  meaning  to  the  child,  bemg  grown,  as  it  were 


"  NATURE-DESCRIPTION."  45 

out  of  German  roots :  "  Pflanzen-Besch.reibung  "  for  botany, 
"  Thier-Beschreibung  "  for  zoology,  etc.  So,  please,  familiar- 
ize yourself,  my  candid  and  patient  reader,  with  this  '"  odd  " 
heading  and  follow  me  into  a  school  representing  the  sixth 
school  year.  Here  I  heard  a  lesson  in  "Thier-Beschrei- 
bung "  which  might  be  said  to  be  an  ideal  lesson.  It  is  im- 
possible to  give  the  whole  lesson ;  only  essentials  must  suf- 
fice. 

Orang-outang  and  sundry  other  apes  were  the  subject. 
Teacher,  showing  the  large  picture  of  the  orang-outang,  and 
saying  that,  for  want  of  time,  they  had  only  barely  touched 
upon  this  subject  yesterday,  asked:  "What  do  you  remem- 
ber having  heard  of  this  animal  ?  *'  A  rather  insignificant- 
looking  specimen  of  the  genus  homo  sapiens  answered  : 
"  The  orang  outang  is  a  monkey  which  resembles  the  human 
being  more  than  other  monkeys.  But  there  are  more  dis- 
similarities than  similarities,  I  think.  He  is  called  orang- 
outang, because  that  means  '  forest- man '  or  '  wood-man  '  on 
account  of  his  similarity  with  man.  He  is  very  fierce  and 
vicious  and  of  huge  strength." 

Teacher.  "That  is  about  all  we  said  yesterday  about  him. 
Now,  let  us  proceed.  Let  us  hunt  up  some  of  the  similarities 
as  well  as  dissimilarities  between  him  and  man." 

Pupil.  "  His  face  looks  like  that  of  an  old  man."  (Went 
to  the  board  and  wrote  under  the  heading  "similarities." 
"Looks  like  an  old  man.") 

Teacher.  "  From  this  picture  it  is  plainly  visible  that  this 
must  be  a  young  specimen,  for  the  older  the  monkey  gets 
the  more  will  the  jaws  grow  outward  and  the  forehead  re- 
cede, so  that  in  old  age  this  monkey  will  look  more  like  a 
ferocious  beast  than  like  man."    Repeat  this  thought. 

Pupil.  "John  said  the  orang-outang  looks  like  an  old 
man  on  this  picture.  Then  this  must  be  a  young  specimen, 
for  in  old  age  he  looks  more  beast-like." 

Teacher.  "  What  changes  take  place  in  his  face  in  the 
course  of  time  ? " 

Pupil.  "His  jaws  grow  outward  and  his  forehead  re- 


46  DfrSSELDORF  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

cedes."  (Went  to  the  board  and  jotted  down,  "Jaws  and 
forehead  change  with  age.") 

Teacher.  "  What  other  observations  ? " 

Pupil.  "  He  is  like  man  covered  with  hair ;  but  while 
man's  hair  is  very  short  and  scarcely  visible,  the  monkey  is 
covered  with  fur-like  hair."  (Made  appropriate  note  on  the 
board  without  being  called  upon.) 

Pupil.  "  Certain  parts  of  his  body  are  not  covered  with 
hau'i  for  instance,  the  ears  and  the  inside  of  the  hands.  In 
this  he  resembles  man  also."     (Note  on  the  board.) 

Pupil.  "I  have  read  somewhere  that  the  teeth  of  this 
monkey  are  exactly  like  human  teeth." 

Teacher.  "  I  am  glad  you  tell  us  that.  Then  by  examin- 
ing our  own  teeth  we  may  infer  from  them  as  to  this  ani- 
mal's teeth."  (Now  followed  a  description  of  the  human 
teeth,  size,  kind,  use,  growth,  etc.,  an  interesting  digression 
from  the  lesson  of  the  day,  one  which  revealed  some  knowl- 
edge of  physiology  and  hygiene.)  "  So,  then,  we  have  an- 
other point  of  similarity ;  what  is  it  ?  " 

Pupil.  "  He  has  a  complete  set  of  teeth  like  that  of  the 
human  being."     (Note  on  the  board.) 

Pupil.  "  We  can't  tell  his  size  from  the  picture.  What 
is  it  ? " 

Teacher.  "  He  never  grows  any  bigger  than  a  boy  of 
fourteen  years,  but  his  strength  is  greater.  Now,  repeat  this 
statement  and  make  a  note  of  it."    (It  is  done.) 

Pupil.  "  His  color  is  chestnut-brown." 

Teacher.  "  Now  some  one  may  repeat  connectedly  all  the 
IK)ints  mentioned  so  far."  (This  was  done,  and  errors  in 
language  were  corrected  "  on  the  spot."  This  connected  de- 
scription was  repeated  by  a  pupil.) 

Pupil.  "  It  appears  from  this  picture  that  the  arms  of  the 
orang-outang  are  very  long."    (Note.) 

Pupil.  "  His  feet  are  like  hands." 

Teacher.  "  True ;  he  has  four  hands.  But  what  is  the 
difference  between  hand  and  foot  ?  " 

Pupil.  "  On  the  hand  the  thumb  can  make  a  movement 


"NATURE-DESCRIPIIOX."  47 

opposite  to  that  of  the  fingers.  This  enables  the  hand  to 
grip  or  grasp.     The  big  toe  can  not  do  that." 

Teacher.  "  What,  then,  is  the  characteristic  of  the 
hand  ? " 

Pupil.  "  The  hand  can  grasp,  the  foot  can  not." 

Teacher.  "  The  monkey  walks  on  his  hands,  sometimes 
erect  on  his  hind  hands.  Sometimes,  especially  when  he  is 
in  a  hurry,  he  walks  on  his  four  hands.  Repeat  this." 
(Whenever  the  teacher  made  a  statement  or  a  pupil  brought 
out  something  new,  the  pupils  had  to  repeat  it.) 

Pupil.  "  His  arms  reach  to  his  ankles,  while  ours  are 
shorter.  The  orang-outang  can  grasp  things  with  his  hind 
hands  as  well  as  with  the  other  two." 

Teacher.  "  Yes,  an  interesting  fact  is  that  some  monkeys 
have  only  two  hands.  But  all  who  have  only  two  hands 
have  them  on  their  hind-legs,  while  their  two  feet  are  on  the 
fore-legs  or  arms."    (Eei)eat  this.) 

Pupil.  "  I  notice  that  this  orang-outang  has  hair  on  his 
arms  which  grows  up  and  downward.     How  is  that  ? " 

Teacher.  "Look  at  the  arms  carefully.  What  do  you 
see?" 

Pupil.  "The  hair  on  his  upper  arm  grows  downward; 
that  on  his  lower  arm  grows  upward." 

Teacher.  "  What  do  you  infer  from  this  ? " 

Pupil.  "  That  he  must  raise  his  lower  arms  much." 

Teacher.  "  Yes,  I  believe  we  may  safely  say  that.  Now, 
let  us  repeat  connectedly  what  we  heard  and  mention  all  the 
points  gathered."  (This  is  done,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
numerous  notes  on  the  board  done  very  handsomely.  These 
reviews  occurred  frequently,  and  they  served  to  "take  up 
loose  stitches  "  here  and  there.) 

Teacher.  "  He  walks  erect  generally,  but  has  a  drag- 
ging gait  because  he  has  no  knee-pans.  When  pursued  he 
climbs  on  high  trees  and  hides  himself  in  the  foliage.  He 
is  not  as  skillful  as  other  monkeys  in  climbing,  but  rather 
clumsy.  He  feeds  on  fruit  and  birds'  eggs.  He  is  here 
pictured  with  a  stick  in  his  hand,  which  he  seems  to  use 
5 


48  DCSSELDORF  (RHEiVISH   TRUSSIA). 

as  a  cane.  It  is  likely  that  the  orang-outang  is  often 
found  walking  with  a  stick,  perhaps  owing  to  his  inability 
to  stand  erect  long.  He  makes  his  nest  on  high  trees,  se- 
lecting strong  branches.  On  these  he  lays  smaller  ones, 
with  thick  foliage  to  make  the  couch  soft.  Being  very  shy, 
he  is  not  often  found.  He  changes  his  couch  frequently  and 
is  unsociable." 

Pupils  repeat  the  several  new  statements  and  seem  to  en- 
joy them.  They  are  again  repeated  by  some  in  a  connected 
manner. 

Teacher.  "  His  home  is  on  the  islands  of  Borneo  and 
Sumatra."  (These  are  looked  up  on  the  map.)  ''The  people 
there — of  course  I  mean  the  aborigines — say  of  the  orang- 
outang, that  he  could  talk  if  he  wanted  to,  but  keeps  quiet 
because  he  is  afraid  that  he  would  have  to  work  if  he  be- 
trayed the  fact  that  he  could  talk.  The  Eiiropeans  know 
better.  His  voice  is  heard  in  shrill  screams  and  angjy 
howling.  It  is  said,  but  has  never  been  obsei'ved  by  Euro- 
peans, that  he  drives  elephants  with  a  stick.  These  are 
probably  legends.  He  can  not  stand  our  climate,  and  if 
caught  and  brought  north  on  board  of  a  steamer  he  gener- 
ally dies  before  he  reaches  Europe.  Very  few  specimens 
have  ever  been  seen  in  zoological  gardens."  (This  new 
batch  of  statements  is  treated  like  all  the  foregoing — that 
is,  repeated,  sketched  in  shortest  expressions  on  the  board, 
and  rounded  off  and  polished  to  secure  good  style.) 

Teacher.  "  That  the  orang-outang  is  an  animal  of  higher 
type  may  be  seen  from  his  quickness  of  perception  and  his 
skill  in  imitation.  There  was  one  in  a  zoological  garden 
who  had  been  fastened  to  a  chain.  At  certain  stated  peri- 
ods the  waiter  came  to  loosen  his  chain  and  take  him  out 
walking.  Of  course,  the  waiter  opened  the  padlock  which 
fastened  the  chain  to  the  cage.  The  ape  saw  him  use  a  key, 
and  one  day  he  took  a  little  chip  and  tried  to  open  the  pad- 
lock himself.  So,  you  see,  he  had  not  only  seen  something, 
but  remembered  it,  and  now  wanted  to  make  use  of  this 
knowledge."    (These  stories  wore  reviewed.) 


A  LESSON  IN   BOTANY.  49 

Now  followed  a  repetition  of  the  whole  description  and 
an  occasional  reference  to  other  monkeys,  of  which  pictures 
were  exhibited.  Then  the  order^  was  given  to  write  out  a 
composition  on  the  orang-outang.  I  requested  to  be  shown 
some  of  these  compositions,  for  which  reason  I  returned  to 
this  class  after  the  lapse  of  an  hour.  I  was  not  at  all  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  work  was  very  commendable  indeed, 
A  pupil  of  this  age  is  always  likely  to  express  his  thoughts 
well,  provided  he  has  any. 

In  a  conversation  with  the  teacher,  afterward  I  gathered 
this  thought,  worth  repeating  :  "  As  in  the  history  of  the 
nation  or  human  race  it  is  desirable  to  group  the  knowledge 
around  individuals,  in  other  words,  make  biography  the  first 
historical  course,  so  in  natural  history  a  single  specimen 
must  suffice  to  group  the  knowledge  of  a  whole  class  of  ani- 
mals, plants,  or  minerals.  Now,  this  orang-outang  is  a  cen- 
tral figure.  Let  the  pupils  see  moi-e  monkeys  and  then  ob- 
serve and  make  inferences  upon  their  dissimilarities  with 
the  orang-outang.  I  doubt  not  they  will  gather  more  valu- 
able knowledge,  after  having  some  definite  knowledge  with 
which  they  can  organically  connect  new  cognitions.  Natu- 
ral history  must  be  biographical  in  the  common  school. 
We  have  neither  time  nor  means  to  teach  moi*e  than  the 
elements.  A  systematic  scientific  instruction  must  be  left 
to  the  higher  schools." 

I  offer  this  to  my  readers  as  a  thought  worth  thinking 
about.  If  the  lesson  sketched  above  may  not  seem  as  brill- 
iant as  it  was  in  fact,  the  fault  is  mine,  owing  to  my  inability 
to  write  short-hand.  I  am  afraid  many  a  valuable  stitch 
was  dropped. 

5.  A  Lesson  in  Botany. 

In  one  of  the  schools  of  a  large  city  on  the  Middle  Rhine 
I  had  the  great  pleasure  of  listening  to  a  botany  lesson, 
which  seemed  to  me  worthy  of  being  sketched  for  the  bene- 
fit of  American  teachers. 

Simple  forms  of  leaves  was  the  subject  of  the  lesson. 


50 


DCSSELDORF   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 


The  pupils  had  provided  themselves  with  leaves,  either  from 
their  own  gardens  or  from  the  numerous  parks  in  the  city ; 
and  though  every  pupil  had  brought  an  abundance,  there 
was  no  litter  of  branches  or  leaves  on  the  floor,  which 
proved  that  good  discipline  was  maintained.  I  will,  in 
sketching  the  lesson,  omit  all  introductory  and  other  un- 
important things  said  or  done — merely  state  the  essential 
features. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  minutes  the  teacher  made  on  the 
blackboard  the  following  figures,  which  were  imitated  by 
the  pupils : 


Figs.  a3-72. 


These  forms  were  named,  the  terms  attached,  and  the 
work  was  accompanied  by  pleasant  conversation,  which  led 
to  obtaining  the  proper  terms.  Frequent  references  to  things 
previously  spoken  of  made  this  part  of  the  lesson  very  inter- 
esting. Thus,  for  instance,  the  spear-head  gave  opportunity 
for  referring  to  the  Indians  and  mound-builders,  of  which 
to  my  genuine  astonishment  the  teacher  had  a  little  but  a 
correct  knowledge.  I  must  heartily  commend  the  teacher's 
dexterity  and  accuracy  in  sketching  the  above  forms  with 
crayon. 


A   LESSON   IN   BOTANY.  51 

When  the  forms  (Figs.  63-72)  were  recognized  and  appro- 
priately named  as  well  as  copied,  the  order  was  given  to  find 
leaves  among  those  brought  to  school  which  had  similar 
shapes ;  and  now  began  a  busy  five  minutes.  Orderly  and 
quietly  the  pupils  seai-ched  for  the  difPerent  forms  and  for 
duplicates  in  oi^er  to  exchange  them  for  those  of  which 
other  pupils  had  plenty.  At  the  close  of  the  five  minutes 
the  signal  was  given  to  have  the  work  ready  for  inspection. 
The  teacher  and  myself  went  through  the  class-room  and 
saw  how  the  pupils  had  arranged  their  leaves. 

Most  pupils  had  heart-shaped  leaves ;  only  one  a  Tcidney- 
\r  shaped  leaf;  all  had  oval-shaped,  both  broad  and  narrow; 
all  had  lancet-shaped  ones,  both  ending  in  a  point  or  in  the 
\  form  of  a  heart.     None  had  a  spattle-shaped  leaf,  so  the 
^  teacher  exhibited  his  specimen.     All  had  spear-  and  arrow- 
^^  shaped  leaves,  but  not  one,  not  even  the  teacher  could  ex- 
hibit a  rue  or  rhomboid  or  diamond-shaped  leaf,  and  so  a 
mere  illustration  on  the  board,  hastily  yet  accurately  drawn, 
j^  had  to  take  the  place  of  an  object  in  natura. 
f0        Now  the  order  was  given  to  sketch  on  paper,  first  the 
simple  figure,  then  the  leaf  under  it,  and  I  was  greatly 
pleased  with  the  result  of  the  work.     It  was  done  quickly. 
About  twenty  minutes  sufficed  for  the  slowest  workers  to 
*   sketch  all  the  leaves.     Care  was  taken  in  bringing  out  the 
Y  characteristic  feature  of  the  leaves.     I  must  say  the  leaves 
"a  looked  very  natural. 

,  While  I  offer  in  the  above  figures  my  own  copy  of  the 

\  teacher's  sketches.  Figs.  73-81  will  be  found  a  pupil's  work 

Q^  which  was  given  to  me  at  my  request.     I  hope  the  reader 

will  find  this  of  sufficient  importance  to  see  why  I  have 

$  _  the  neat  sketches  accurately  reproduced  for  the  benefit  of 

C-    those  who  might  like  to  imitate  the  lesson.     They  will  show 

that  in  this  lesson  seeing,  doing,  and  telling  about  it,  went 

O    hand  in  hand.     They  will  also  bear  witness  to  the  skill  the 

^  pupils  displayed  in  drawing. 

O        No  incomprehensible  Latin  terms  were  used,  much  to  my 
^  delight.     Reniformis  means  nothing  to  the  child,  while 


62 


DCSSELDORF  (UHENISH   PRUSSIA). 


kidney -shaped  carries  with  it  a  meaning,  api)ealing,  as  it 
does,  to  a  familiar  form  in  the  memory. 

Now  the  leaves  were  traced  to  their  origin.  "  What 
plant  has  leaves  like  this  one  ? "  "  Where  did  you  get 
yours  ? "  ''  Was  it  a  tree,  a  shrub,  an  herb,  a  grass  ?  "  and 
so  on.  What  struck  me  in  this  lesson  was  the  fact  that  the 
teacher  led  the  pupils  in  an  opposite  way  from  the  one  in 
which  I  had  seen  another  teacher  lead  his  class.  The  other 
had  taken  the  natural  leaf  first,  and  then  conventionalized  it. 


Figs.  73-81. 


This  teacher  gave  the,  so  to  speak,  geometrical  form  first,  and 
led  the  pupils  to  recognize  that  identical  form  in  the  leaves. 
Whether  the  one  or  the  other  may  be  used,  both  ways 
seemed  to  come  to  the  same  point,  namely,  thorough  ac- 
quaintance with  leaf-forms  as  well  as  skill  in  sketching. 
Both  teachers  paid  due  regard  to  spelling  and  language, 
taking  care  that  the  technical  terms  were  duly  impressed 
upon  the  memory  by  being  written  on  the  board  and  in  the 
note-books,  and  by  being  pronounced  in  chorus  and  by 
single  pupils. 


IDEAL  TEACHING  IN  GEOGR^VPHY.  53 

I  find  a  great  deal  of  sketching  done  in  the  schools  of 
Grermany  and  France,  and  I  take  this  opportunity  to  say 
that  this  practice  has  a  great  educational  influence,  inas- 
much as  it  develops  the  sense  of  form  and  creates  a  memoiy 
for  forms,  not  to  speak  of  the  skill  it  gives  to  the  hand  and 
the  ability  to  retain  knowledge. 

''  How  did  you  manage  to  get  them  to  do  this  sketching 
so  accurately  ? "  was  my  question.  The  teacher's  reply  was 
characteristic,  namely : 

"  Of  course,  when  we  began,  many  efforts  of  the  pupils 
were  weak  and  their  results  execrable ;  but  we  persisted,  and 
never  let  an  opportunity  for  sketching  slip  by.  Nearly  every 
day  some  sketches  of  forms  are  made,  and  the  habit  of  talk- 
ing'with  the  pencil  is  easily  acquired.  It  is  just  as  it  is  with 
learning  to  swim.  Plunge  in  and  courageously  strike  out. 
Don't  try  to  learn  to  swim  by  practicing  the  movements  of 
arms  and  legs  on  the  parlor  carpet.  By  persistent  practice  I 
accustom  my  pupils  to  do  this  work  of  sketching.  I  make  it 
a  duty,  a  pleasure,  and  even  a  second  nature  to  them." 

The  result  of  such  practical  teaching  is  obvious,  I  see 
no  reason  whatever  why  we  should  not  be  able  to  "  go  and 
do  likewise," 

6.  Ideal  Teaching  m  Geography, 

It  was  in  a  preparatory  school  in  the  city  of  D where 

I  saw  ideal  teaching  in  geography.  The  school  was  pro- 
vided with  all  possible  means  in  form  of  maps.  The  matter 
of  insti'uction  could  be  graded  just  as  is  done  in  arithmetic, 
reading,  etc.  Geographical  knowledge  has  for  ages  been 
wrested  from  overstocked  maps.  The  child  had  to  search 
painfully  among  a  bewildering  mass  of  data  and  facts  for 
those  which  were  to  be  learned.  A  systematic  or  methodical 
pi"ogress  step  by  step  was,  if  not  impossible,  certainly  very 
difficult.  Just  as  little  as  a  teacher  would  give  into  the 
hands  of  a  child  a  copy  of  Webster's  "  Unabridged "  or  of 
Shakespeare's  complete  works  when  he  begins  to  learn  the 
art  of  reading,  just  as  little  can  it  be  rational  in  the  teach- 


54 


DtrSSELDORF  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 


ing  of  geography  to  place  before  him  a  complete  map  stocked 
with  a  bewildering  number  of  details. 


Fig.  82. 


This  difficulty  was  removed  in  the  school  I  refer  to.  Out- 
line maps  were  used.  Fii*st  river-maps  like  the  one  above 
(Fig.  82).  All  the  water-courses  and  the  ocean  (A)  were 
colored  blue,  while  the  land  (B)  appeared  black.  Below 
each  map  was  given  a  profile,  or  longitudinal  vertical  sec- 
tion on  certain  given  lines,  as  on  the  above  sketch  on  line  a. 
The  pupils  drew  the  map  on  paper  and  then  inserted  the 
elevations.  Then  followed  another  outline  map  containing 
the  elevations  and  a  few  boundary -lines.  By  degrees  more 
items  of  information  were  added,  such  as  cities,  trunk-roads, 
canals,  etc.  The  principle  of  Father  Pestalozzi,  "  One  difficul- 
ty at  one  time,"  was  carefully  heeded,  and  the  pupils  were  not 
bothered  with  maps  such  as  we  use  in  America,  which  blur 
the  children's  mental  picture  by  their  multiplicity  of  detail. 

Teachers  are  apt  to  labor  under  the  misapprehension  that 
a  map  is  a  good  one  when  it  contains  much.  This  is  an 
error.  According  to  that  argument  a  school  reader  would 
be  a  good  one  only  when  it  contained  the  whole  literature 
from  Alfred's  time  to  the  present  day.    Outline  maps,  sil- 


SILHOUETTE  PRACTICE  MAPS. 


65 


houette  maps,  and  such  means  for  teaching  geography  ra- 
tionally, are  coming  into  use  here  in  Europe  as  well  as  with 
us  in  America. 

The  school  I  referred  to  was  lavishly  provided  with  maps 
and  charts.  There  were  outline,  silhouette,  and  complete 
maps,  geographical,  historical,  physiological,  physical,  and 
astronomical  maps  and  charts.  What  a  wealth  there  was  ! 
And  what  a  joy  it  must  be  to  teach  in  such  a  school  ! 

7.  Silhouette  Practice  Maps. 

The  silhouette  practice  maps  facilitate  the  grading  of  the 
matter  of  instruction  and  present  opportunities  for  the  grad- 
ual up-  building 
of  geographical 
knowledge  as 
gained  item  by 
item  by  the  child. 
Upon  these  maps 
(Fig.  83)  may  be 
entered  as  upon 
a  blackboard  the 
data  to  be  learned, 
first  by  the  teach- 
er, afterward  by 
the  pupils,  and 
thus  an  opportu- 
nity is  afforded 
to  the  child  to 
become  a  self- 
active  participa- 
tor in  the  lesson. 
When  the  lesson 
is  completed,  all 

marks  or  names  Pj^  gg 

can     be     erased 

with  a  moist  sponge  or  cloth,  and  the  map  is  ready  for 
a  new  lessoo  or  a  review. 


56  DCSSELDORF   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

The  silhouette  practice  maps  enable  the  instructor  in 
history  to  illustrate  with  colored  crayon  changes  in  political 
boundaries  at  different  periods.  Students  of  ancient  history, 
as  well  as  general  and  modern  history,  can  use  these  maps 
with  great  advantage.  They  do  not  make  common  wall 
maps  superfluous,  but  supplement  them.* 

8.  Cause  and  Effect  m  Geography. 

The  "  Popular  Educator,"  of  Boston,  published  in  1887-'88 
some  excellent  contributions  which  offered  in  words  and 
pictures  the  present  status  of  geography  teaching  in  Ger- 
many. Those  articles  leave  me  little  to  say  on  that  subject. 
One  thing  I  can  do  though,  and  I  do  it  willingly,  namely,  to 
say  that  the  statements  made  in  those  articles  are  con*ect. 
German  teachers,  not  only  in  Saxony,  where  the  author 
evidently  gathered  his  information,  but  also  in  other  parts 
of  the  empire,  do  teach  geography  as  there  stated ;  if  modi- 
fied somewhat,  perhaps,  essentially  the  same  methods  are 
pursued,  and  that  with  wonderful  results. 

How  I  should  like  to  transfer  some  of  our  American 
teachei-s  hither,  who  can  not  imagine  a  geography  lesson 
without  verbatim  memorizing  of  the  printed  text !  How  I 
should  like  to  show  them  rational  teaching  !  I  am  fully 
aware  of  the  fact  that  we,  too,  have  good  teachers,  and  not 
a  few  either ;  but  it  can  not  but  please  a  visitor  greatly  to 
find  every  teacher,  good  and  poor  ones,  following  well-estab- 

*  In  connection  with  the  foregoing  description  it  may  not  be  out  of  place 
to  call  attention  to  an  effort  of  my  own  which  may  aid  teachers  seeking  for 
better  means  of  rational  instruction  than  the  overstocked  and  crowded  wall 
maps  in  use  now.  I  mean  the  silhouette  practice  maps,  published  by 
Messrs.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

These  maps,  of  which  the  sketch  in  the  margin  gives  an  idea,  are  printed 
on  heavy  tack  cardboard  and  covered  with  a  durable  water-proof,  clean-sable 
gur/ace,  adapted  to  receive  a  succession  of  markings  and  cleansings.  The 
shaded  space  represents  the  water  surfaces.  Oceans,  lakes,  and  rivers  ap- 
pear in  blue  on  these  maps,  tlie  land  in  black  ;  hence  their  name,  silhouette 
maps.  They  are  called  practice  maps  because  the  pupil  can  on  them  practice 
with  crayon  geography  as  ho  does  arithmetic. 


CAUSE   AND   EFFECT   IN   GEOGRAPHY. 


57 


lished  principles  of  method.     That  is  the  true  state  of  afPairs 

here  in  the  city  of  D .    Even  the  poor  teachers  are  not 

without  professional  training.  There  is,  however,  a  deep 
shadow  on  this  bright  picture.  Many  schools  are  very 
poorly  equipped  with  means  of  instruction,  such  as  maps 
and  charts. 

I  listened  to  a  lesson  in  geography  lately  in  a  German 
school  where  seventy  boys  sat  together  like  sardines  in  a 
box.  The  teacher  had  nothing  better  than  a  medium-sized 
wall  map  made  by  himself.  His  mode  of  marking  elevations 
was  very  simple  and  comprehensive,  one  which  is  well  worth 
imitating.     With  pencil  or  pen  he  shaded  thus  (Fig.  84) : 

Thus  he  was  en- 
abled to  represent  the 
topography  of  a  coun- 
try in  a  remarkably 
accurate  manner,  and 
this  easy  method  en- 
abled his  pupils  to 
judge  at  a  glance  as 
to  the  height  of  the 
land.  They  saw  why 
certain  rivers  took 
such  and  such  a  course 
and  no  other;  why 
certain     cities     were 

cold,  others  warm;  why  a  river  was  navigable  or  not,  ac- 
cording to  the  abruptness  of  the  slope;  why  certain  rivers 
flowing  from  great  heights  had  a  straighter  course  than 
those  which  had  little  fall  and  meandered  through  the  plain ; 
why  certain  lands  are  blessed  with  mild  climates,  being  shel- 
tered on  the  north  side  by  high  and  steep  mountain-ranges, 
others  had  rough  climate,  being  exposed  to  the  north  wind. 

The  teacher  was  well  informed  and  gave  information  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  agreed  with  the  children's  mental 
stomachs.  Example :  The  Erz-Gebirge  (Oi"e-Mountains)  were 
once  full  of  silver  mines.    At  the  time  of  Martin  Luther  (at 


HEIGHTS. 


=  300  it. 


=  500M. 


1000  M. 


2000  M. 


Fig.  BL 


58  DCSSELDORF  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century)  these  mines  drew  a 
great  number  of  people  to  Saxony  and  particularly  to  that 
range  of  mountains.  When  the  mines  ceased  to  yield,  the 
population,  not  being  so  fluctuating  as  it  is  now,  was  obliged 
to  seize  upon  other  modes  of  occupation.  The  slopes  of  the 
mountains  being  well  provided  with  various  kinds  of  wood, 
offered  material  for  a  variety  of  wood-working  industries. 
The  slopes  being  steep,  the  mountain  brooks  were  turbulent 
and  gave  an  opportunity  to  build  mills,  which  were  fii-st 
used  for  various  purposes.  Lately,  when  the  textile  industry 
grew,  this  water-power  was  utilized  to  serve  that  industry. 
The  woods  soon  disappeared  on  the  Erz  Mountains;  they 
were  literally  used  up.  So  the  people  had  to  resort  to  manu- 
facturing pursuits  almost  entirely,  agriculture  being  impossi- 
ble. To-day  the  population  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  is  the 
densest  of  all  Germany,  and,  aside  from  that  in  Belgium, 
the  densest  in  all  Europe. 

It  was  cause  and  effect  constantly,  and  the  attention  and 
responsiveness  of  the  boys  were  truly  delightful. 

One  other  hint  I  received  in  this  school.  When  the 
oral  lesson  closed,  the  teacher  sent  a  boy  to  the  blackboard 
to  make  a  sketch  of  the  map  which  the  other  boys  were  told 
to  make  on  their  slates.  Then  he  showed  that  distances 
which  he  could  cover  with  the  span  of  his  hand  should  be 
made  one  inch  long  on  the  slate  or  six  inches  on  the  black- 
board. Now  he  measured  off  certain  points  on  the  map  by 
spans,  and  thus  gave  the  pupils  a  simple  scale  by  means  of 
which  they  could  furnish  a  free-hand  map  which  was  not 
out  of  proportion.  This  procedure  leads  the  way  to  a  more 
accurate  scale  and  to  the  thorough  comprehension  of  scales 
as  such.  Afterward  even  this  measuring  by  spans  would 
be  discontinued,  I  was  told,  and  mere  eye-measuring  would 
be  substituted.    It  was  a  fine  lesson,  indeed  a  fruitful  lesson ! 

9.  Making  History  an  Experience. 

I  shall  never  forget  the  events  of  this  day,  and  my  read- 
ers, I  am  sure,  will  enjoy  an  account  of  it.    Piirsuant  to  a 


MAKING  HISTORY  AN  EXPERIENCE.  59 

polite  invitation  I  accompanied  the  teachers  and  pupils  of  the 

Realschule  of  D ,  on  an  excursion  to  a  neighboring  hill 

about  four  miles  from  the  city.  The  school  marched  in  com- 
panies behind  a  drum  corps,  the  teachers  acting  as  captains. 
The  students  all  wore  light  grayish-blue  flannel  suits  and  a 
cap,  and  carried  suspended  from  the  shoulders  by  a  strap  a 
tin  box  called  a  botanizing  drum.  This  contained  a  lunch, 
small  hammers  for  breaking  minerals,  pincers  for  dissecting 
plants,  cork  and  pins  for  securing  beetles,  and  a  drinking- 
vessel.  A  few  boys  carried  spades  and  shovels,  ropes  and 
hammocks. 

The  "regiment"  aiforded  a  beautiful  sight  as  it  marched 
from  the  school-yard  between  five  and  six  hundred  in  num- 
ber. As  soon  as  the  country  road  was  reached,  the  music- 
teacher  began  a  patriotic  song  in  marching  time  and  the 
whole  school  chimed  in.  Oh,  the  exhilarating  influence 
that  song  had !  When  we  came  to  the  villa  of  a  noted  phi- 
lanthropist who  had  recently  given  a  large  sum  of  money 
to  the  school-fund,  the  regiment  drew  up  in  line  and  gave 
him  a  serenade  which  wound  up  with  three  rousing  hurrahs. 
On  we  went,  more  singing  followed,  but  never  a  break  in 
the  ranks  nor  a  case  of  disorder. 

When  we  reached  the  foot  of  the  hill  a  rest  was  taken  at 
an  inn,  where  milk  was  served  and  lunch  was  enjoyed  as 
only  youth  can  enjoy  it.  Then  we  plunged  into  the  woods, 
each  class  by  itself,  one  botanizing,  one  looking  for  miner- 
als, another  studying  geography,  and  so  on,  I  joined  the 
history  class.  The  professor  took  us  to  the  summit  of  the 
hill  and  tbere  gave  us  a  lesson  on  local  history  which  was 
interesting  to  a  high  degree. 

"  There  it  was,"  said  he,  "  where  Prince  Ferdinand  chased 
the  Frenchmen  across  the  Rhine.  Yonder  castle  is  the  an- 
cient residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Jiilich-Cleve-Berg,  and  in 
that  castle  it  was  where  the  beautiful  Princess  Jacobea  of 
Baden  was  murdered.  Far  in  the  distance  you  can  see  the 
towers  of  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne,  begun  some  time  during 
the  thirteenth  and  finished  during  our  nineteenth  century. 


60  DUSSELDORF  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

Yonder  is  the  ancient  convent  built  by  the  successor  of 
Bishop  Boniface ;  here  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Falkenburg, 
the  feudal  castle  in  which  lived  the  owner  of  the  land  as  far 
as  you  can  see." 

Then  he  drew  a  vivid  picture  of  the  difference  between 
feudalism  and  modern  institutions.  The  knights  and  barons 
in  their  fortified  castles  were  all  robbers,  swooping  down 
like  hawks  on  the  fords,  on  the  highways,  on  the  moorlands, 
on  the  forests,  on  the  little  settlements  below  them,  and 
sometimes  on  the  fortified  cities,  within  the  walls  of  which 
were  fostered  the  feeble  germs  of  self-government,  civil 
rights,  and  civil  virtues.  It  was  a  splendid  lesson!  The 
students  crowded  around  him  with  bated  breath.  Pencil 
and  note-book  were  brought  into  requisition,  and  within  the 
short  space  of  an  hour  so  many  references  were  made  to 
points  studied  in  the  class-room  that  this  lesson  proved  a 
profitable  review  over  a  month's  hard  study. 

A  bugle-signal  brought  all  the  different  classes  together 
in  the  Wolf  gully.  Here  the  professor  addressed  the  whole 
school  and  proposed  to  make  this  the  scene  of  the  battle  of 
Thermopylae.  About  fifty  agile,  strong  boys  were  selected 
to  represent  the  Greeks  who  should  defend  the  pass.  Their 
leader  was  a  fine  lad  of  noble  bearing,  who  played  the  rdle 
of  Leonidas  superbly.  All  the  other  boys  were  requested  to 
advance  and  retreat  as  Persians.  The  fight  in  the  iiass  was 
not  rude,  though  pretty  severe ;  and  the  battle  could  not  be 
fought  through  with  historical  faithfulness,  since  not  one  of 
the  boys  was  willing  to  play  the  rdle  of  Ephialtes,  the  traitor, 
so  the  teacher  had  to  lead  the  Persians  over  the  hill  on  a 
secret  path  into  the  rear  of  the  gallant  Greeks,  who  were 
disarmed  after  a  most  heroic  resistance.  The  historical  anec- 
dotes, such  as  the  answer  of  Leonidas  to  Xerxes  about  "  fight- 
ing in  the  shade  "  and  others,  were  woven  into  the  play.  This 
was  doing  history  as  pupils  do  arithmetic  in  the  class-room. 

The  supercilious  reader,  if  there  be  one,  may  smile  over 
this  boyish  enthusiasm.  Let  him !  The  world  owes  all  its 
prizes  to  enthusiasts  and  nothing  to  callous  men. 


MAKING  HISTORY  AN  EXPERIENCE.  Ql 

After  the  battle  a  welcome  rest  was  enjoyed,  then  vocal 
music  followed.  Mendelssohn's  "Farewell  to  the  Forest" 
and  similar  choruses  were  rendered  chai-mingly.  Now  the 
treasures  found  during  the  afternoon  were  brought  forward. 
Queer-looking  specimens  of  petrifaction,  animals,  plants, 
etc.,  were  examined,  classified,  and  disposed  of.  Gymnas- 
tics, climbing  of  trees,  and  the  tight  rope,  followed.  Class 
exercises  and  games  occupied  part  of  the  time.  Certain 
daring  feats  were  applauded  and  imitated.  The  teachers 
were  always  among  the  boys,  suggesting  and  advising,  but 
never  showing  their  authority  except  when  an  order  came 
by  bugle-sound. 

When  the  sun  went  down,  we  all  assembled  at  the  sum- 
mit of  the  hill  and  enjoyed  the  grand  sight  of  a  sunset. 
Tlien  the  regiment  formed  in  line  and  marched  toward  home, 
drum  corps  in  front,  and  the  whole  school  joined  in  singing 
and  shouting.  Another  lunch  at  the  inn,  and  then  the 
march  was  taken  up  again.  As  we  approached  the  city 
gates  perfect  order  and  silence  were  established,  the  ranks 
closed,  and  by  degrees  the  companies  grew  smaller,  as  the 
boys  would,  singly  or  in  small  groups,  leave  the  ranks,  turn 
into  side  streets,  and  go  home. 

There  was  never  a  break  or  a  lull.  Every  change  pro- 
posed, every  new  move  made,  was  so  well  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion, that  the  whole  day  resembled  a  kaleidoscope  of  beauti- 
ful ideas  and  scenery.  I  have  my  well-founded  doubts  that 
Young  America  could  pass  a  day  as  delightfully  and  profit- 
ably as  these  healthy  German  lads  did. 

The  teachers  remained  together,  following  the  invitation 
of  the  rector,  and  spent  the  evening  at  his  house,  partaking 
of  his  choicest  vintage  and  indulging  in  social  and  profes- 
sional talk.  I  can  think  of  no  day  in  all  my  professional 
life  that  so  completely  engrossed  my  attention  as  this  one  did. 

10.  The  Star-Gazer. 

I  had  the  grea  t  pleasure  of  accompanying  a  class  of  boys  to 
the  observatory  in  D ,  an  institution  which  is  under  dif- 


C2 


DtSSELDORF  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


ferent  management  from  that  of  the  high-school  of  the  city. 
Here  the  whole  class,  about  twenty-four  young  men,  re- 
ceived a  lesson  in  finding  the  constellations — a  lesson  given 
by  the  astronomer,  assisted  by  the  teacher  and  the  astrono- 
mer's amanuensis.  The  class  was  placed  in  a  row  on  a 
veranda,  and  by  means  of  an  ingenious  device  all  the  stu- 
dents were  enabled  to  find  the  stars  and  constellations  in- 
stantly. Let  me  sketch  the  device.  Its  name  is  the  star- 
gazer. 

It  consists  of  a  light  rectangular  frame,  which  is  sus- 
pended by  a  cord  from  a  cross-beam,  a  tree,  or  any  other  con- 
venient place.  There  were  six 
of  these  gazers  in  use.  The 
•  astronomer  would  step  behind 
the  line  of  boys,  and  with  the 
frame  lifted  to  the  height  of 
his  eye  would  look  along  one 
side  of  the  frame  till  he  had 
fixed  his  gaze  on  a  particular 
star.  A  student  would  then 
look  along  the  other  parallel 
side  of  the  frame  and  soon  see 
precisely  the  same  star  which 
appeared  as  the  vanishing 
point  of  the  two  parallels. 
The  student  would  keep  his  eye 
on  that  star,  the  astronomer 
would  retire,  and  another  stu- 
dent take  his  place.  In  a  few 
seconds  the  whole  class  looked  at  the  same  star;  thereby  a 
fixed  point  was  gained  from  which  entire  constellations 
could  be  mapped  out.  Maps  of  the  constellations  wei*e 
spread  out  on  a  table  and  were  consulted. 

Now,  the  reader  may  perhaps  think  this  of  trifling  im- 
portance, but  it  struck  me  as  being  worthy  of  mention  on 
account  of  its  simplicity.  The  device  is  also  used  by  Dr. 
Lander,  of  Williamston,  South  Carolina,  where  I  saw  it 


Fio.  85. 


WHY  SO  FEW  GERMANS  CAN  TALK  ON  THEIR  FEET.   63 

first.  I  might  have  forgotten  it  had  I  not  met  with  it  here 
and  seen  its  great  usefulness  for  class  instruction.  Great 
minds  think  alike.  I  hope  Dr.  Lander  will  not  take  me  to 
task  for  thus  giving  his  invention  to  the  public. 

11.  Why  so  few  Germans  can  talk  on  their  Feet. 

I  attended  a  meeting  which  was  held  to  celebrate  the 
fiftieth  birthday  of  a  young  ladies'  school.  It  was  a  pomp- 
ous afiPair  indeed,  but  one  which  betrayed  a  failing  in  the 
German  Government  officers  which  could  not  and,  I  believe, 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  America.  There  was  a  privy 
councilor,  a  high  Government  dignitary,  who  could  not 
speak  off-hand  without  breaking  down  before  he  reached 
the  end  of  a  sentence.  Not  one  of  his  sentences  was  com- 
pleted in  the  style  or  grammar  in  which  it  was  begun. 
When  at  the  close  of  his  miserable  speech  he  decorated  the 
rector  of  the  school  with  the  insignia  of  the  order  of  the  Eed 
Eagle,  several  gentlemen  covered  their  amusement  with  an 
acute  attack  of  violent  coughing. 

This  speaker  was  followed  by  a  school  councilor,  who 
spoke  a  little  more  fluently,  but  mumbling  his  words  wo- 
fuUy,  and  the  audience  was  heartUy  pleased  when  he  re- 
tired. Then  we  heard  the  rector  of  a  similar  school  and  one 
of  a  boys'  high-school  si)eak.  They  conveyed  the  congratu- 
lations of  sister  institutions  and  dwelt  at  length  upon  educa- 
tional questions. 

Well,  I  must  say  these  speeches  caused  me  to  compare 
the  admirable  readiness  with  which  American  teachers,  and 
in  fact  average  American  citizens,  speak  in  public  and  the 
awkwardness  of  these  German  speakers.  They  were  not 
average  teachers,  but  noted  persons,  men  who  had  achieved 
a  reputation  in  literature  and  are  looked  up  to  as  leaders  in 
educational  affairs.  Think  of  it  that  such  men  have  an 
abiding  influence  upon  the  future  of  the  male  youth  of  the 
empire,  young  men  who  are  called  upon  in  future  to  guide 
the  affairs  of  the  state !  Not  one  spark  of  that  natural  and 
graceful  eloquence  which  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
6 


64  DCSSELDORF  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

public  man  in  America  was  noticeable ;  no  brilliant  rhetoric, 
not  even  a  commendable  elocution. 

However,  comprehending  everything  means  pardoning 
everything.  The  causes  are  apparent  to  the  naked  eye.  No 
wonder  our  American  citizens  can  talk  fluently  in  public, 
having  so  many  hundreds  of  opportunities  offered  them  for 
public  speaking  and  the  practical  training  they  get  in  their 
high-schools  and  even  grammar-schools ;  and  then  remem- 
ber that  the  German  "  citizen,"  or,  more  correctly  speaking, 
the  German  "  subject,"  has  very  few  such  chances  and  that 
oratory  is  not  known  among  the  studies  of  the  high-school. 
Think  also  of  the  fact  that  English  is  a  very  easy  language ; 
it  has  no  declensions  to  speak  of,  and  its  syntax  is  of  the 
most  primitive  kind.  In  fine,  you  may  build  your  sentences 
with  unhewn  stones ;  they  will,  singular  as  it  may  seem,  al- 
ways fit  well  together.  In  German  it  is  necessary  to  hew 
every  block  before  using  it.  A  number  of  declensions  and 
conjugations  and  a  rather  complicated  syntax  make  speak- 
ing the  language  fluently  very  difficult. 

But,  despite  all  this,  there  are  German  orators  of  great 
talent.  When  I  returned  to  my  hotel  I  accompanied  a  lady, 
who  spoke  without  reserve  of  this  woful  want  of  good 
speakers  in  the  schools,  saying,  "  If  that's  a  sample  of  elo- 
quence taught  in  the  Boys'  High-School,  I  don't  wonder  that 
the  German  Parliament  is  so  tame  an  affair,  and  that  so 
natural  and  volcanic  an  eloquence  as  that  of  Bismarck's 
crushes  the  men  there  as  thougli  they  were  mere  reeds." 

12,  Class-Book  of  Progress. 

Whatever  you  may  think  or  say  of  the  Germans,  one 
thing  is  indisputable :  they  are  excellent  accountants.  Sys- 
tematic in  their  habits,  even  in  trifling  things,  as  they  are, 
their  success  in  business  is  not  at  all  astonishing.  This  same 
systematic,  thoughtful  way  of  doing  business  may  be  seen 
in  school.  But  the  reader  must  not  think  that  these  bom 
accountants  keep  many  account-books.  A  German  teacher 
has  only  two,  or  at  most  three  books,  which  he  keeps  regu- 


CLASS-BOOK  OF  PROGRESS.  65 

larly  and  methodically.  The  first  is  the  daily  register  of  at- 
tendance; the  second  a  "  book  of  progress,"  and  sometimes  a 
journal  is  used  to  enter  meritorious  cases,  or  cases  of  punish- 
ment.    It  is  the  second  book  of  which  I  wish  to  speak. 

Each  teacher  keeps  a  "  book  of  progress,"  which  contains 
a  broad,  convenient  column  for  each  branch  of  study.  After 
each  lesson  he  enters  a  statement,  couched  in  the  fewest  pos- 
sible expressions,  of  what  he  did,  not  of  what  he  meant  to 
do,  during  the  lesson.  Let  me  copy  a  few  items  for  the  bene- 
fit of  my  readei-s,  to  show  how  well  the  accounts  are  kept, 
and  with  what  little  waste  of  time  it  is  done: 

Geography.     Teacher:  Mr. . 

Oct.  17.  Mountains  of  southern  Germany,  water-sheds  and  rivers. 

"     18.  Drainage  of  central  Europe. 

"  19.  Impoi-tance  of  Rhine,  Elba,  Oder,  Vistula,  and  Danube  for  com- 
merce. 

"     20.  Commercial  and  industrial  cities  in  central  Europe. 

"    21.  States  of  Germany.     Historical  allusions, 

"    22.  Review. 

"  24.  Coast-line  of  Germany  compared  with  that  of  England  and  other 
countries. 

"     25.  Historical  allusions  regarding  Venice,  Trieste,  etc. 

"     2(5.  Political  boundaries  of  southern  Europe. 

"     27.  The  course  of  the  Danube,  physical  and  political  geography. 

"    28.  Review,  etc.,  etc. 

As  I  said,  every  branch  of  study  is  thus  treated,  and  the 
teacher  does  not  leave  the  cla.ss-room  before  he  has  posted  up 
this  day-book.  This  book  is  of  use  to  himself  inasmuch  as  it 
afi'ords  an  easy  reference  to  the  ground  gone  over,  and  a 
most  convenient  means  of  control  on  the  part  of  the  super- 
intendent. But  the  curse  of  our  American  schools,  the  daily 
marking  of  pupils,  the  keeping  of  a  class  record,  the  weekly, 
monthly  term,  and  annual  reports,  these  terrible — but  no, 
there  is  no  occasion  to  be  bitter.  Let  me  simply  repeat  that, 
aside  from  the  daily  register  of  attendance  and  the  above- 
mentioned  book  of  progress,  no  ofiicial  accounts  ai^e  kept. 


66  dCsseldorf  (ruenish  Prussia). 

Despite  the  absence  of  daily  marking,  I  find  the  many  pupils 
of  a  class  in  the  graded  schools  more  on  a  level  than  I  ever 
found  them  in  America.  I  can  in  no  other  way  account  for 
this  than  by  the  thorough  professional  training  of  the  teach- 
ers, -which  is  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  holding  a  position. 
Do  not  blame  me  for  mentioning  this  so  often.  It  can  not 
be  said  too  often,  can  not  be  emphasized  too  strongly. 

13.  Promote  the  Teachers  with  their  Classes. 

Many  of  my  readers  will  have  observed  how  detrimental 
it  is  to  the  progress  of  children  that  they  have  to  change 
teachers  often.  Their  mental  growth  is  stunted,  though 
every  one  of  their  teachers  may  be  a  good  one.  Before  the 
new  teacher  has  acquainted  himself  with  the  peculiarities  of 
each  pupil  much  valuable  time  is  lost ;  many  vital  errors  are 
committed,  though  unintentionally;  many  points  of  hostile 
contact  are  established,  before  he  is  aware  of  it.  Even  one 
new  teacher  for  every  year  is  too  frequent  a  change,  as  was 
found  by  these  thoughtful  Germans.  They  hit  upon  a  rem- 
edy which,  I  am  glad  to  say,  is  in  vogue  also  in  America  in  a 
few  places.     It  is  this : 

In  the  primary  grades  the  teacher  is  promoted  with  his 
class.  He  steps  into  the  next  higher  class  with  all  the  little 
ones  prepared  for  promotion.  When  the  second  year  is  over, 
he  takes  that  class  into  the  thii'd  year's  work,  and  in  some 
cities  even  further  up,  into  the  fourth.  After  that  he  pro- 
motes his  class  into  the  intermediate  school  and  steps  down 
again  to  the  new  chart  class  which  has  just  entered  school. 
Here  he  begins  another  cycle  of  three  or  four  years.  In  other 
woi-ds,  he  has  the  same  pupils  three  or  four  yeare  instead  of 
one  year. 

The  same  order  of  procedure  is  followed  in  the  next  four 
years,  or  intermediate  school.  Here  the  teacher  has  Lis  pu- 
pils for  three  years.  In  this  department  there  is  a  deviation 
from  the  rule,  namely,  the  principal  is  excluded  from  this 
rotary  movement.  He  remains  in  charge  of  the  highest 
grade  ^ways.    I  believe  this  is  done  to  round  ofip  and  polish 


PROMOTE  THE  TEACHERS  WITH  THEIR  CLASSES.       67 

the  pupils'  knowledge  before  they  finish  the  coiirse  of  study. 
It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  enlarge  upon  the  advantages 
connected  with  this  practice.  They  are  obvious  to  any  ob- 
servant witness,  although  I  admit  there  are  disadvantages 
connected  with  it,  also.  On  an  impartial  scale,  however, 
the  advantages  will  outweigh  the  disadvantages.  I  am  con- 
fident of  that. 

Note. — Connection  of  Teacher  and  Pupils. — In  the  "  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion," of  April  26th,  Dr.  L.  R.  Klemra  points  out  the  loss  to  children  from 
frequent  change  of  teachers,  and  considers  how  the  change  may  be  avoid- 
ed. This  very  important  question  has  not,  I  think,  received  the  attention 
it  deserves.  Speaking  of  the  only  schools  in  which  I  have  worked — viz., 
the  English — I  have  no  doubt  that  the  progress  of  the  cleverer  boys  is 
checked  by  the  frequent  and  sometimes  violent  changes  in  methods  of 
study  as  the  pupil  passes  from  teacher  to  teacher.  An  able  or  very  hard- 
working boy  will  "  get  his  remove  "  three  times  in  the  year ;  so  no  "  form- 
master  "  has  the  teaching  of  him  for  more  than  twelve  or  thirteen  weeks. 
Does  it  not  seem  obvious  that  teacher  and  pupil  are  parted  just  when  they 
are  beginning  to  understand  one  another  ? 

The  Jesuits  have,  I  believe,  always  adopted  the  plan  recommended  by 
Dr.  Klemm.  With  them  the  personal  influence  of  the  teacher  is  consid- 
ered of  the  highest  importance,  and  the  teacher  has  to  make  a  careful 
study  of  the  powers,  the  tastes,  and  the  habitsof  each  pupil.  So  teacher 
and  pupil  must  keep  together.  The  same  method  is  common  in  the  great 
Scotch  schools,  though  without  the  same  motive.  This  method,  with  some 
advantages,  must  have  many  drawbacks.  In  all  schools  there  are,  most 
likely,  some  weak  masters.  With  us  the  harm  done  by  this  weakness  is 
spread  over  a  large  area,  but  it  would  be  the  intellectual  and  perhaps  the 
moral  ruin  of  a  boy  to  be  handed  over  to  such  a  teacher  for  the  whole  of 
his  school  life.  And  how  can  the  same  boys  be  taught  together  year  after 
year,  while  the  rate  of  progress  of  some  of  them  is  so  much  greater  than 
that  of  others  ? 

I  am  very  glad  Dr.  KIcmm  has  started  the  subject  for  discussion. 

R.  H.  Quick. 

Redhill,  Scbret,  England. 


68  D0SSELDORF  (RHENISH  PRUSSU). 


14,  A  School  of  Design. 

Many  months  I  spent  in  Germany,  visiting  schools  al- 
most exclusively.  I  passed  through  the  fairest  portions  of 
the  empii-e,  through  the  Free  Cities,  Westphalia,  Rhenish 
Prussia,  Saxony,  Thuringia,  Brandenburg,  etc. ;  even  ci'ossed 
the  boundary  into  Holland  and  France,  and  studiously 
avoided  visiting  industrial  schools  or  any  other  special 
schools.  My  JGLrst  object  was  to  see  what  could  be  seen  in 
the  elementary  schools.  Hundreds  of  schools,  more  than  five 
hundred  class-rooms  and  lessons  I  saw,  many  libraries,  col- 
lections, school  museums,  and  whei^ver  I  found  a  pearl  I 
picked  it  up,  deliberately  appropriating  it  for  the  benefit  of 
my  American  colleagues.  I  addressed  German  teachers' 
meetings,  "culture  clubs,"  and  other  societies,  wrote  down 
in  leisure  hours  (sitting  in  hotel-lobbies,  depots,  or  in  my 
easy-chair  of  a  furnished  room)  on  the  spur  of  the  moment 
what  I  had  seen  diu'ing  the  day  worth  noting  down.  I 
wrote,  sketched,  drew,  and  copied — and  now  I  am  weary. 

Though  the  work  is  very  interesting  and  exciting,  very 
absorbing,  indeed,  a  holiday  occupation  such  as  my  wildest 
dreams  of  happiness  could  not  have  pictured,  I  begin  to  be- 
lieve in  Goethe's  words,  "  Nichts  ist  schwei'er  zu  ertragen  als 
eine  Reihe  von  schoenen  Tagen  "  (nothing  is  more  difficult 
to  endure  than  a  number  of  fine  days).  Traveling  from  one 
city  to  another,  following  suggestions  to  this  and  that  point 
in  quest  of  improved  teaching,  and  nowhere  enjoying  the 
rest  which  home  alone  can  offer,  I  begin  to  feel  as  though  I 
deserved  a  vacation.  This  I  seek  in  visiting  special  schools, 
and,  being  aware  of  the  commotion  in  our  country  caused 
by  the  attempt  at  ingrafting  manual  training  upon  the  com- 
mon school,  I  begin  with  industrial  schools. 

The  first  one  of  these  schools  at  my  disposal,  and.  as  I  am 
told,  one  of  the  best  in  the  empire,  is  a  school  of  industrial 
art  (really  called  art -industry  school,  "  Eunst  -  Gewerbe- 

Schule  ")  at  D .    These  institutions  are  a  result  of  the  fact 

that  the  Germans  had  recognized  the  superiority  of  other 


A  SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN.  69 

nations  in  the  domain  of  industrial  art.  In  Philadelphia 
(1876)  they  found  themselves  badly  beaten  by  the  French, 
by  the  Americans,  and  partly  also  by  the  Italians  and  Aus- 
ti'ians.  Heroically  they  set  to  work  to  win  back  the  same 
position  in  industrial  art  which  Germany  had  during  the 
middle  ages.  With  the  revival  in  southern  Germany  of 
models  of  the  middle  ages,  a  burning  desire  was  felt  not  to 
allow  the  ti-ades  to  retrograde,  but  to  give  them  a  new  im- 
petus. This  was  found  in  better  models  and  in  more  thor- 
ough instruction  in  the  industrial  arts. 

Thus  all  the  industrial  occupations  were  placed  on  a 
higher  level  than  heretofore.  It  was  found  that^  with  the 
enormous  extension  of  machine  labor,  manual  labor  was 
libei-ated  to  better  efforts  and  higher,  nobler  aims.  The 
Grovemment  saw  that  the  hands  thus  liberated  by  machine- 
power  must  be  employed,  and  it  did  not  hesitate  a  moment 
in  founding  schools  which  directed  much  of  this  idle  power 
and  talent  into  new  channels.  In  all  industrial  centers  of 
the  empire  schools  of  mdustrial  art  sprung  up.  They  are 
found  in  Berlin,  Cologne,  Nuremberg,  Diisseldorf,  and  many 
other  places,  chiefly  in  South  Germany,  Saxony,  and  Ehen- 
ish  Prussia.  These  schools  are  maintained  by  communal 
(i.  e.,  local  district)  and  state  funds. 

While  in  the  common  schools  manual  occupation  is  in- 
troduced to  offer  the  pupils  a  curriculum  in  which  mental 
exertion  is  counterpoised  by  manual  exertion,  these  special 
schools  in  Germany  have  a  different  object — they  are  to  per- 
fect the  boys  in  the  trades  after  having  gone  through  the 
common  school^  and  to  give  them  that  education  which  fits 
them  to  play  leading  roles  in  industrial  pursuits.  The  com- 
pletion of  a  common-school  education  is  a  condition  of  admis- 
sion. No  pupil  is  admitted  before  he  has  completed  his  four- 
teenth year  of  age,  and  not  even  then  unless  he  has  entered 
a  workshop  as  an  apprentice  or  joined  an  industrial  artist  in 
his  studio.  In  other  words,  he  must  be  a  hoiia  fide  artisan. 
Academic  instruction  is  only  offered  in  geometry  because 
that  branch  is  not  in  the  course  of  the  common  school. 


70  DCSSELDORF  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

Tlie  Diisseldorf  Industrial  Art  School  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  departments — the  preparatory  and  the  professional. 
No  pupil  can  enter  the  professional  department  who  has  not 
gone  through  a  course  in  the  preparatory  department,  though 
special  talent  will  enable  him  to  absolve  it  in  a  few  months. 
He  must  submit  to  the  rigid  course  which  requires  of  him  to 
pass  through  all  the  different  preparatory  exercises  so  that 
he  may  with  wide-open  eyes  discover  his  calling  and  select 
his  trade.  In  his  preparatory  class  each  student  draws  some- 
thing of  everything — designs  for  house-building  and  furni- 
ture, designs  for  gun-,  lock-,  and  tool-smiths  and  other  metal- 
workers, designs  for  machine-building  and  devices,  for  mod- 
eling in  clay  and  wood-carving,  for  embossing  and  chasing, 
for  decorative  art  and  engraving,  for  glass  and  china  paint- 
ing, and  Heaven  knows  what  not. 

There  is  a  variety  in  this  preparatory  department  which 
at  first  puzzles  many  a  pupil;  but  soon  he  finds  his  favorite 
occupation  if  he  had  not  previously  developed  a  special  lik- 
ing. Toward  the  end  of  a  year  a  pupil  of  this  department 
usually  has  developed  a  very  decided  leaning  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  the  professors  foster  that  by  giving  the  pupil 
work  to  do  that  will  help  him  on  in  his  chosen  specialty. 
The  main  object  of  this  preparatory  department  is  that 
the  student  test  his  strength  in  all  directions  and  yn\h 
the  aid  of  the  teachers'  advice  and  mature  judgment  find 
his  calling.  It  is  a  process  not  of  natural  but  of  deliberate 
selection. 

Now  the  student  is  ready  to  enter  the  professional  de- 
partment. Sometimes  a  student  is  found  to  develop  such  a 
variety  of  talents  that  the  professors  are  obliged  to  repress 
and  curb  him  lest  he  should  fritter  away  his  strength  in  too 
many  directions.  I  saw  many  exquisite  achievements  in  the 
preparatory  class ;  but  one  thing  struck  me  as  highly  recom- 
mendable — there  was  no  copying  done.  Copies  were  placed 
before  the  pupil ;  but  they  had  to  be  reproduced  on  a  larger 
or  smaller  scale.  If  a  student  is  found  copying,  he  is  sum- 
marily dismissed.     Let  me  say  also  that  a  boy  who  is  absent 


A  SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN.  71 

without  cause  is  dismissed  without  appeal.    "  We  don't  want 
any  lazy-bones  here,"  said  the  rector. 

Most  of  the  pupils  of  the  preparatory  department  are  ap- 
prentices who  ply  their  trade  after  school  hours ;  but  when 
they  enter  the  professional  department  they  give  up  their 
work  in  the  shop  for  three  years,  at  least  do  not  work  in 
them  steadily.  Only  models  and  designs  drawn  and  calcu- 
lated in  school  may  be  worked  out  in  the  home  shops  and 
brought  to  school.  The  school  itself  has  no  shops,  except 
studios  for  wood-carving,  modeling  in  clay  and  plaster,  re- 
pousse work,  etching,  engraving,  chasing,  and  decorative 
painting.  No  manual  labor  in  joining  and  carpentering, 
etc.,  is  done  in  this  school,  but  articles  are  made  from  mod- 
els in  natui'a,  all  done  at  home  by  the  students  and  pro- 
fessors after  designs  furnished  by  the  school.  These  models 
for  joiner- work  fiJl  an  entire  room,  and  are  very  costly  arti- 
cles. 

The  professional  department  is  divided  into  as  many 
classes  as  there  are  trades  which  can  be  benefited  by  designs, 
the  school  being  in  reality  a  "school  of  design."  I  will 
enumerate  the  classes : 

Class  I.  Furniture-building  (joiner  and  carpenter  work). 
n.  Architecture. 

m.  Metal- work  (locksmith,  armorer,  and  toolsmith). 
IV.  Decorative  painting  (fresco-painting  and  textile 

industry. 
v.  Figural  drawing  and  painting. 
VI.  Ornamental  modeling  in  clay  and  wax. 
VII.  Figural  modeling. 

VIII.  Ornamental  and  figural  wood-carving. 
IX.  Etching,  embossing,  and  raising  in  metal. 
X.  Engraving  and  chasing  (jeweler  work). 
And  several  classes  of  minor  importance,  chiefly  subdivis- 
ions.    Classes  I,  11,  III  embrace  instruction  in  drawing  and 
coloring  designs  which  will  further  the  industrial  pursuits 
of  carpenters,  joiners,  architects,  armorers,  gun-  and  lock- 
smiths, etc.      New  designs  are  invented  under  guidance. 


72  DtJSSELDORF  (IIHENKH  PRUSSIA). 

Models  in  "  life-size  "  or  in  miniature  are  placed  before  the 
pupils.  Class  IV  offers  instruction  in  designing,  drawing, 
and  painting  of  decorations  on  the  plane  (surface  decora- 
tion). Water-colors  are  used.  This  class  is  also  frequented 
by  landscape  gardeners.  Instruction  in  Class  V  is  made 
very  interesting.  Attendance  is  obligatory  for  all  the  stu- 
dents, because  the  human  figm'e  is  represented  more  or  less 
in  the  work  of  all  trades. 

Instruction  in  Classes  VI  and  VII  is  perhaps  more  highly 
developed  here  in  Diisseldorf  than  elsewhere.  Instruction 
in  Class  VIII  has  special  reference  to  joiner's  work,  while  that 
of  Classes  IX  and  X  aims  at  imitating  those  costly  and  valu- 
able drinking- vessels  made  during  the  middle  ages,  the  man- 
ufacture of  which  was  for  a  long  time  almost  classed  among 
the  lost  arts.  No  matter  what  class  a  student  has  chosen,  he 
is  obliged  to  take  part  in  exercises  in  perspective  drawing, 
in  drawing  from  casts,  and  from  the  nude  model.  Every 
student  is  obliged  to  listen  to  a  course  in  anatomy.  Par- 
ticularly talented  students  are  permitted  to  join  several 
classes. 

The  daily  sessions  are  from  eight  to  twelve,  from  two  till 
six,  and  from  seven  till  nine — total,  ten  hours.  Only  Sun- 
day afternoon  and  evening  are  free.  Tuition  fees  per  an- 
num are  ten  dollars  in  the  preparatory  class,  fifteen  dollars 
in  the  professional  department,  and  five  dollars  extra  for 
the  evening  lectures.  The  building,  which  was  erected  spe- 
cially for  the  purpose,  contains  a  very  large  museum  of  in- 
dustrial arts,  which  is  open  to  the  students.  In  America  we 
should  consider  this  school  an  art-school,  but  not  so  here. 
An  academy  of  fine  arts  is  a  totally  different  thing.  While 
in  this  industrial  art-school  everything  done  is  done  with 
reference  to  industrial  pursuits,  the  art-school  confines  itself 
to  painting  in  oil  and  water-color  and  to  sculpture. 

I  met  a  young  man  from  Chicago  in  the  Industrial 
School  who  was  studying  in  the  class  of  decorative  painting 
and  in  the  modeling  class.  He  confided  to  me  that  he  had 
gone  through  a  similar  school  in  America  and  then  worked 


PROPER  SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  73 

as  fresco-painter.  When  he  had  earned  a  thousand  dollars 
he  had  come  to  Grermany  and  entered  this  school,  confident 
that  he  could  go  through  the  entire  course  in  half  a  year. 
"  Well,"  said  he,  "  I  am  at  the  beginning  of  my  fovu'th  half 
year  now,  and  I  am  not  nearly  through  yet.  What  a  won- 
derland this  Germany  is  !  "  he  added,  with  a  sigh. 

I  spent  several  hours  in  rummaging  through  the  accumu- 
lated work  of  the  students  after  having  gone  through  all  the 
classes,  and  was  greatlj^  pleased  with  what  was  accomplished. 
The  rector,  a  young  man  of  great  force,  told  me  that  the  se- 
cret of  success  of  this  school  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  trustees 
engaged  as  professors  in  this  institution  only  men  who  had 
proved  incontestably  that  they  were  masters  in  their  respect- 
ive departments.  "  It  is  not  a  question  of  home  talent  with 
us,  but  of  merit  alone  !  " 


CHAPTER  IV. 

elberfeld-babmen  (rhenish  prussia). 

1.  Proper  School  Furniture. 

In  the  city  of  Elberfeld  I  came  across  another  proof  of 
the  careful  consideration  for  the  pupils  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities  such  as  is  not  often  found  in  our  country.  I 
found  a  tin  scale  (see  cut  on  next  page)  tacked  to  the 
door-post  with  its  lower  end  just  one  metre  above  the  floor. 
The  pupils  are  measured  frequently  and  rearranged  on  the 
seats  with  reference  to  their  sizes.  Children  who  measured 
110  centimetres  are  placed  on  benches  numbered  VIII.  If 
they  measure  117  centimetres,  they  are  placed  on  a  bench  a 
size  larger,  namely.  No.  VII,  and  so  upward. 

If  this  is  done  three  or  four  times  a  year,  each  child  will 
haye  a  convenient  seat,  not  too  low  and  not  too  high.  The 
benches  in  the  schools  of  that  city  are  all  made  by  one  firm, 


74 


ELBERFELD-BARMEN  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


and  furnished  in  accordance  with  the  scale.  Some  people 
may  consider  this  pedantic;  but  the  scale  being  furnished 
gratis  and  the  arrangement  taking  little 
time,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  it. 
I  remember  with  ever-vivid  sensation 
the  cramps  in  my  legs  and  the  pain 
in  my  back  when  I  as  a  small  boy  had 
to  sit  on  a  high  bench,  my  feet  dangling 
and  my  body  swaying,  because  I  could 
find  no  convenient  rest  for  the  feet  or 
back. 

The  men  in  the  Board  of  Education 
who  loftily  dismiss  any  such  proposition 
of  the  superintendent  as  changing  the 
desk  for  hygienic  purposes,  ought  to  be 
condemned  to  pass  a  day  on  such  a 
bench  to  get  a  taste  of  the  inconven- 
ience caused  by  improper  furniture. 
But,  then,  the  schools  of  some  Ameri- 
can cities  are  "  governed  "  by  the  people 
for  the  benefit  of  political  parties,  and 
it  is  simply  ridiculous  to  expect  mem- 
bers of  political  school  comnuttees  to 
consider  hygienic  principles  so  long  as 
the  question,  "  Which  of  the  different 
manufacturers  of  desks  uses  most  of 
my  wares  ? "  is  uppermost  in  their  minds. 
It  is  perhaps  the  very  man  who  "sat 
down  "  on  a  motion  of  the  superintend- 
ent to  purchase  more  suitable  desks 
who  will,  when  he  gets  home,  claim 
the  most  convenient  arm-chair  in  the 
house,  lean  back  in  it,  and  tell  his  wife 
of  the  laborious  duties  of  a  school 
committee-man,  and  expatiate  upon  his  saintly  conduct  as 
an  immaculate  servant  of  the  people.  O  tempora !  O 
mores ! 


1 

child's 

SIZE. 
CENTIM. 

SIZE  OF 

BENCH. 

NO. 

La 

180 
170 
160 

B 

I. 

150 
140 

" 

TI. 

III. 

130 
1K0 

: 

IV. 

■v 

VI. 

VII. 

no 

100 

; 

VIII. 

1 

Fig.  86. 


THE  FIRST  REFORMED  PARISH  SCHOOL.  '^5 

2.  The  First  Eeformed  Parish  School. 

A  historical  spot  of  no  mean  importance  is  the  school  I 
visited  in  Elberfeld.  During  the  time  of  the  great  Churcli 
Reformation  this  school  was  a  parish  school,  and  when  the 
entire  parish  severed  its  connection  with  the  Roman  Church 
and  joined  the  Protestants,  this  school,  being  property  of 
the  parish,  changed  its  character  and  name  also.  Through 
all  the  vicissitudes  of  life  during  more  than  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  the  school  has  remained  unchanged  save  in 
this,  that  it  is  now  a  city  or  communal  school;  but  the  city 
authorities  are  so  respectful  to  the  historical  reputation  of 
this  school  that  they  reserve  for  it  the  well-earned  distinc- 
tion of  being  called  the  First  Reformed  Parish  School,  while 
all  other  city  schools  are  called  people's  or  communal 
schools. 

In  front  of  the  building,  separated  from  it  by  a  roadway, 
is  an  ancient  church-yard  in  which  rest  the  remains  of  the 
fi^rst  Protestants,  the  fii*st  followers  of  Dr.  Martin  Luther  in 
this  place.  From  the  windows  of  the  front  rooms  may  be 
seen  the  tower  of  the  first  Lutheran  church  in  the  valley, 
the  first  church  in  which  the  purified  faith  was  preached. 
Though  not  a  stone's-throw  off  stands  a  palatial  new  Catholic 
school,  a  proof  of  the  fact  that  we  live  in  a  different  century, 
this  ancient  parochial  school  has  kept  up  its  reputation  as 
the  best  school  in  town;  indeed,  a  day  spent  in  different 
rooms  of  this  quaint  building  convinced  me  of  the  powerful 
influence  of  historical  reminiscences. 

I  heard  a  lesson  in  mathematical  geography  in  the  seventh 
grade  (seventh  from  below),  one  in  language  in  the  sixth,  in 
singing  in  the  seventh,  in  comjxjsition  in  the  sixth,  in  or- 
thogi-aphy  in  the  fourth,  in  reading  in  the  lowest  grade,  and 
must  pronounce  the  teaching  far  superior  to  that  of  many 
other  schools.  This  first  reformed  school  seems  to  be  on  the 
road  to  reform  yet.  It  protests  energetically  against  all 
transmitted  errors  in  teaching.  The  most  advanced  methods 
are  applied.    Thus,  for  instance,  it  does  not  teach  to  spell 


Y6  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

(to  split  words)  for  the  sake  of  spelling,  as  is  so  frequently 
done  in  our  schools,  but  teaches  orthography  (correct  writ- 
ing) chiefly  through  the  sense  of  sight.  This  is  done  in  a 
way  which  would  give  an  orthodox  schoolmaster  (or  school- 
mistress, for  that  matter)  the  horrors  or  make  his  flesh  creep. 
Let  me  state  how  it  is  done. 

The  children  had  read  a  piece  containing  a  number  of 
difficult  words.  The  teacher  ordered  these  words  to  be 
marked,  picked  out,  and  written  on  the  board.  They  were 
carefully  looked  at  and  the  difficulties  they  contained  were 
pointed  out.  Then  the  teacher  spelled  (split)  each  word  in 
succession.  After  that  a  mark  was  made  where  the  word 
was  divided  or  broken  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Now  they  were 
used  in  new  sentences,  and  some  pupils  dispatched  to  the 
board  to  write  these  short  sentences.  After  this  the  teacher 
proceeded  to  erase  the  words  of  the  lesson,  and  had  them  in- 
serted again  by  other  pupils. 

After  all  this  was  done  the  entire  work  on  the  board  was 
erased  and  the  sentences  were  dictated.  While  the  pupils 
wrote  them,  the  teacher  passed  through  the  aisles  and  cor- 
rected instantly  what  errors  were  met  by  her  sharp,  search- 
ing eyes.  After  the  work  was  done  on  the  slates,  the  pupils 
were  told  to  erase  certain  words  (the  new  difficult  words  of 
the  lesson)  and  to  insert  them  again  after  spelling  them 
aloud.  Thus  an  hour  was  profitably  spent  in  seeing,  divid- 
ing, writing,  erasing,  and  rewriting  words,  and  the  occupa- 
tion this  gave  to  the  children  was  anything  but  tedious. 
Words  thus  learned  in  proper  surroundings  are  reviewed 
next  day  by  merely  writing  them  in  columns  and  using  them 
in  sentences  orally  only. 

New  words  are  also  taken  from  the  matter  in  geography, 
arithmetic,  drawing,  etc.,  not  only  from  the  reading  matter. 
Words  which  the  pupils  should  learn,  though  they  are  not 
contained  in  the  reading  matter,  are  purposely  thrown  at 
their  feet,  so  that  they  must  either  stumble  over  them  or 
pick  them  up.  This  is  not  done  by  presenting  the  pupils 
with  strings  of  words  promiscuously  selected,  but  with  their 


A  SEPARATE  SCHOOL  FOR  DULLARDS.      77 

meaning  in  sentences,  for  instance,  in  connection  with  ob- 
ject-lessons, so  that  they  appear  as  garments  of  ideas.  They 
are  thus  organically  connected  with  knowledge  previously 
gained. 

Or,  to  generalize,  a  word  is  not  given  to  find  a  definition 
for  it,  but  the  thought  and  the  definition  are  presented  and  a 
fitting  word  is  found  afterward.  First,  the  object,  the  phe- 
nomenon, the  quality,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  then  the 
thought  or  idea  is  established,  and  for  that  a  suitable  word, 
a  symbol,  as  it  were,  is  formed.  That  word  is  then  incor- 
porated in  the  child's  vocabulary  and  laid  at  anchor  by  see- 
ing it  and  by  writing  it  correctly.  Of  course,  some  words 
are  learned  otherwise,  but  I  feel  disinclined  to  state  excep- 
tions.    What  I  am  after  is  the  rule. 

This  may  seem  pale  theory  to  some  teachers ;  but  I  assure 
them  it  takes  less  time  to  teach  orthography  in  this  way  than 
to  dictate  incomprehensible  words  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
a  plentiful  crop  of  mistakes.  Children  loathe  incomprehen- 
sibl3  words.  Spelling  in  the  old-fashioned  school  was  a 
separate  study,  and  as  such  no  doubt  it  was  a  beauty  and  a 
joy  forever  (?).  To-day  orthography  is  no  separate  study, 
but  appears  as  component  part  of  practice  in  written  lan- 
guage. 

3.  A  Separate  School  for  Dullards. 

A.  Object  and  Organization. — In  such  industrial  cen- 
ters as  Elberfeld,  Barmen,  Cologne,  Gladbach,  Crefeld,  Essen, 
Diisseldorf,  Solingen,  Duisburg,  Remscheid,  and  others  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  the  percentage  of  idiots,  deaf-mutes,  and 
other  kinds  of  Nature's  stei>children,  is  naturally  greater 
than  at  places  of  similar  importance  in  America,  where  the 
people  do  not  live  so  close  together.  The  number  of  these 
unfortunates  is  always  smaller  where  better  hygienic  condi- 
tions admit  of  healthier  life,  and  beautiful  sui-roiindings  and 
the  influence  of  art  generate  a  more  moral  atmosphere ;  but 
it  is  not  of  the  idiotic  children,  to  wit,  those  who  prove  un- 
able to  be  educated,  of  whom  I  will  speak.    The  state  and 


78  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

community  take  care  of  them  in  well-regulated  institutions 
as  generously  as  is  done  in  America. 

In  every  graded  system  of  city  schools  there  is  a  residue 
of  weak-minded  children  who  can  not  be  counted  among 
those  unable  to  learn.  In  America  such  children  are  often 
repulsed  and  got  rid  of  by  fair  or  foul  means,  a  thing  that 
can  not  be  done  here,  where  a  very  severe  law  prescribes 
obligatory  attendance.  The  school  authorities  here  deserve 
the  highest  praise  for  not  excluding  these  pariahs,  but  with 
infinite  care  bringing  them  within  the  pale  of  school  influ- 
ence. 

Let  me  have  it  distinctly  understood  that  I  do  not  mean 
imbecile  children,  pronounced  idiots,  but  intellectually  weak 
ones,  children  who,  though  in  possession  of  the  organic  five 
senses,  are  poorly  endowed  in  perception,  memory,  reason, 
etc.,  and  are  therefoi'e  unfit  to  stay  among  normally  en- 
dowed children,  partly  because  they  deserve  a  specially  slow 
procedure  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  are  therefore  a 
hindrance  to  the  class  ;  partly  also  because  they  are  the 
laughing-stock  of  their  brighter  schoolmates,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  being  ill  treated  lose  the  last  spark  of  self-respect 
and  ambition. 

Here  in  the  district  of  Diisseldorf,  which  has  more  big 
cities  and  industrial  centers  than  any  other  Prussian  pro- 
vincial district,  the  idea  has  taken  root  that  these  mentally 
weak  children  ought  to  be  taught  separately,  lest  in  the 
course  of  time  they  might  become  idiots,  but  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  freeing  the  common  school  of  a  dead  weight 
which  impedes  its  progress. 

It  was  not  easy  to  convince  the  school  comtnittee  of  the 
necessity  of  such  a  school,  but  a  few  of  the  superintendents 
took  the  matter  in  hand  and  urged  its  establishment  with  all 
available  arguments.  Miinchen-Gladbach  and  Elberfeld  are 
the  first  cities  in  which  such  separate  or  special  schools  were 
established.  Other  cities,  such  as  Cologne,  Crefeld,  Diissel- 
dorf, followed  suit,  and  in  several  others  the  establishment 
is  contemplated,  notably  also  in  Basle,  Switzerland. 


A  SEPARATE  SCUOOL  FOR  DULLARDS,  79 

Many  prejudices  of  parents  had  to  be  overcome.  When, 
some  ten  or  twelve  years  ago,  I  urged  a  superintendent  in 
Ohio  to  establish  such  a  school,  he  answered  me :  "  I  have  a 
good  mind  to  single  out  the  morally  unsound  and  danger- 
ous elements  and  put  them  into  an  ungraded  school  by 
themselves  ;  but  I  hesitate  to  single  out  the  dullards."  I 
asked  why.  Said  he,  looking  wise :  ''  A  father  or  mother  is 
more  easily  persuaded  that  his  or  her  boy  is  mischievous, 
wicked,  and  even  vicious,  than  that  he  is  too  stupid  to  make 
the  progress  that  his  schoolmates  make.  Moral  weakness 
may  be  attributed  to  street  influence  and  bad  example  of 
others,  but  the  accusation  of  mental  weakness  touches  the 
parent  to  the  quick."  Similar  difficulties  had  to  be  over- 
come here. 

One  of  the  rules  under  which  this  special  school  here  in 
Elberfeld  operates  is  that  a  child  can  only  be  admitted  after 
it  has  attended  a  public  school  for  two  years,  and  during  that 
time  has  given  ample  evidence  of  its  inability  to  keep  up  with 
other  children.  These  are  the  children  that  cause  anxiety  in 
family  and  school.  They  can  not  be  promoted  with  their 
schoolmates,  but  lose  courage  and  finally  settle  back  into  a 
state  of  hopeless  indifference  unless  placed  in  the  care  of 
a  teacher  who  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  such  work. 
These  childi-en  are  slow  in  perception,  slower  still  in  reason- 
ing, wofully  weak  in  memory;  and  their  imagination,  hav- 
ing been  left  without  food  in  form  of  percepts  and  con- 
cepts, is  stunted.  They  can  not  apply  thoughts,  and  will 
remain  helpless  creatures  unless  special  instruction  is  given 
them,  which  will,  coupled  with  infinite  patience,  awaken 
thought,  nourish  the  power  of  abstraction,  train  the  power 
of  application,  and  generally  treat  them  as  objects  of  tender 
care. 

Some  nine  years  ago  a  beginning  was  made  here  in  El- 
berfeld with  twenty-five  pupils.  A  teacher  who  was  re- 
markably well  adapted  for  this  kind  of  work  was  sent  to 
special  schools  for  idiots  to  learn  the  methods  applied  there. 
All  desirable  means  of  instruction  were  placed  at  his  dis- 


80  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH   PRUSSU). 

posal,  and  the  authorities  with  rare  and  commendable  wis- 
dom gave  him  free  elbow-room — that  is,  did  not  hedge  him 
in  with  a  prescribed  course  of  study.  No  object  was  fixed 
in  view  except  to  do  the  best  that  could  be  done  under  the 
cu'cumstances.  The  selection  of  this  teacher  was  a  very 
happy  one. 

The  trial  of  one  year  established  the  indisputable  fact 
that  these  children  were  not  hopeless  cases,  but  that  they 
could  be  taught  and  that  they  could  learn.  Some  wealthy 
parents  who  had  children  with  weak  intellects  observed  the 
results  of  this  effort  and  sent  their  backward  children  to  this 
school.  That  removed  the  reputation  of  its  being  a  school 
for  outcasts.  Poor,  prejudiced  people  thought,  "If  Mr. 
Privy  Councilor,  and  Mr.  General  Agent,  and  Mr.  Banker, 
and  such  people,  send  their  children  to  this  school,  it  can't 
be  a  school  for  outcasts,  and  we  will  send  ours  "  ;  and  they 
did.  Soon  a  second  class  was  started,  and  the  school  graded 
in  primary  and  intermediate  class.  Still  better  work  could 
now  be  done  and  was  done.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
or  fifth  year  the  opening  of  a  third  class  was  found  neces- 
sary, and  ever  since  the  school  has  exercised  a  beneficial  in- 
fluence directly  within  its  walls,  and  indirectly  by  freeing 
the  other  schools  of  impediments. 

At  present  (November,  1887)  this  special  school  has  very 
commodious  quarters,  and  works  according  to  a  curriculum 
which  has  been  developed  slowly  as  circumstances  would 
permit — a  curriculum  which  is  subject  to  changes  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  pupils  may  dictate.  There  is  no  rigid  require- 
ment, no  cast-iron  rule.  Course  and  method  are  as  elastic 
and  flexible  as  the  individuality  of  the  pupils  make  it  neces- 
sary. Some  pupils  stay  beyond  the  fourteenth  year  of  age. 
Teachers  and  inspector  keep  an  eye  on  those  who  have  com- 
pleted the  course,  and  help  them  to  enter  life  to  carve  out  a 
future.  The  attendance  at  present  is  about  ninety  pupils  in 
three  rooms.  If  we  consider  that  Elberfeld  has  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  the  number  of  ninety 
pupils  in  this  special  school  is  not  exox-bitant.     In  the  next 


A  SEPARATE  SCHOOL  FOR  DULLARDS.       81 

sections  I  shall  describe  the  results  and  the  methods  ob- 
served. 

B.  Results. — It  is  obvioiis  that  this  school  must  in  no 
way  be  fettered  down  with  ri^d  rules  and  regulations,  or 
with  a  course  of  study  prescribed  in  schools  for  normally 
endowed  children.  Though  it  has  in  due  course  of  time 
been  able  to  set  down  in  writing  what  is  possible  and  attain- 
able, its  only  true  guide  is — try  to  attain  what  is  within  reach 
of  the  individual  pupU,  The  teachers  are  obliged  to  change 
the  course  and  the  method  frequently  so  as  to  adapt  them  to 
each  individual  pupQ.  If  we  consider  that  this  school  has 
hardly  any  models  to  go  by  except  institutions  for  idiots, 
deaf-mutes,  etc.,  and  that  this  is  literally  a  pioneer  school,  it 
is  easily  seen  how  great  mvist  be  the  difficulties  that  beset  the 
path  of  its  teachers. 

I  have,  in  all  my  wanderings  through  schools  in  America 
and  Europe  (and  this  is  my  twenty-fifth  year  of  experience 
in  the  school-rooms),  not  found  another  set  of  teachers  who 
can  compare  with  these  three  in  inquisitiveness  and  eager- 
ness to  gain  information  useful  to  them  in  their  Sisyphus 
work.  One  of  them  told  me  that  he  had  been  sent  to  a  school 
for  deaf-mutes  to  study  methods,  and  had  noticed  that,  bar- 
ring the  one  defect,  the  children  there  were  normally  en- 
dowed and  had  that  inspiring  desire  to  learn  which  flows 
from  ambition.  "But  look  at  these  young  ones,"  said  he; 
"  there  is  no  ambition.  All  we  can  awaken  at  first  is  a  kind 
of  dull  or  blunt  interest  in  bright  pictures.  All  absti*action 
is  impossible.  Many  can  not  conceive  of  such  numbei*s  as 
3,  5,  7,  and  it  takes  the  patience  of  ten  Jobs  to  '  generate ' 
such  concepts." 

I  find  in  use  here  some  of  Froebel's  occupations ;  not  all, 
but  the  simplest  ones,  and  even  these  are  modified.  I  find 
adapted  here  methods  used  in  blind  asylums,  schools  for 
deaf-mutes,  and  schools  for  idiots.  Suggestions  are  taken 
from  every  source,  and  readily  acknowledged.  Of  course, 
the  school  is  not  considered  a  model  school  of  its  kiud,  but  I 
am  confident  it  will  be  in  time  to  come.     Just  as  cai*efully 


82  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

as  the  mind  is  trained  the  other  X)owers  of  the  soul  are  at- 
tended to.  The  emotions,  though  sluggish,  are  stimulated ; 
volition,  in  most  cases  entirely  wanting,  is  awakened,  not 
crushed ;  order  and  discipline  are  maintained,  and  thus  the 
foundation  is  laid  for  a  further  development  of  the  moral 
sense.  The  pupils'  good  qualities  are  lovingly  nursed  ; 
their  bad  tendencies  are  repressed,  not  violently,  yet  firmly 
and  consistently. 

Pupils  who  have  skill  in  manual  occupations  are  special- 
ly trained  in  them,  so  that  when  they  leave  school  at  the  age 
of  fourteen  years  they  may  be  apprenticed  to  some  trades- 
man; and  charitably  the  school  keeps  its  hand  over  them 
for  many  a  year  to  come  until  the  children  are  either  well 
enough  advanced  to  carve  out  their  own  future  or  prove  in- 
capable of  developing  further  what  the  school  had  awakened 
in  them.  In  the  latter  cases  the  State  is  called  upon  to  take 
the  care,  and  it  rarely  hesitates.  I  have  not  the  least  doubt 
that  some  day  a  genius  whose  mental  constitution  differs 
vitally  from  that  of  normally  endowed  children  will  be 
found  to  deserve  special  treatment  in  such  a  special  school 
and  find  it  here.  History  tells  of  some  such  cases  who 
became  famous,  not  on  account  of  their  school  education, 
but  despite  of  it.  They  might  have  had  proper  training  in 
such  a  special  school  for  dullards.  Nature  is  a  very  queer 
woman.  Who  knows  but  that  some  of  these  children  may 
bloom  out  into  full-fledged  geniuses  who  will  leave  others 
behind  them,  astonishing  the  world  with  ideas  not  commonly 
conceived  by  the  "  normally  endowed  "  ?  According  to  the 
established  idea,  a  genius  is  an  abnormally  endowed  person. 

Up  to  May  1,  1885,  thirty  pupils  were  dismissed  from  this 
school  and  sent  into  the  world.  May  I  be  permitted  to  give 
a  few  highly  interesting  statistical  data  ? 

I.  Number  of  children  who  passed  the  examination  for 
dismissal  at  fourteen  years  of  age : 

Upper  Class. — Sixteen  boys,  six  girls. 

Lower  Class. — Four  boys,  four  girls. 

Three  were  sent  away  or  transferred  who  proved  idiotic; 


A  SEPARATE  SCHOOL  FOR  DULLARDS.  83 

five  were  sent  back  who  proved  well  enough  endowed  to  get 
along  in  the  common  school;  one  moved  away  from  town; 
one  died.     Total,  forty. 

II.  Duration  of  attendance : 

Two  of  these  forty  children  attended  this  special  school 
one  year;  three  children  one  and  a  half  yeai"s;  one  child 
two  years ;  five  children  two  and  a  half  years ;  two  children 
three  years ;  one  child  three  and  a  half  years ;  five  children 
four  years ;  three  children  four  and  a  half  years ;  six  chil- 
dren five  years ;  two  children  five  and  a  half  years. 

III.  Results  of  the  school : 

Of  the  thirty  who  passed  the  examination  twenty-three 
could  read  well  with  proper  emphasis,  seven  only  mechan- 
ically. 

In  wHting  seven  could  only  copy ;  ten  could  write  from 
memory  and  dictation ;  and  thirteen  co\ild  write  short  com- 
positions, letters,  bills,  etc. 

In  arithmetic  six  children  could  only  reckon  within  the 
circle  of  1  to  20,  three  within  1  to  100,  two  within  1  to  200, 
S3ven  within  1  to  1,000.  Three  worked  with  unlimited  num- 
bers, and  eight  succeeded  in  reckoning  with  denominate 
numbers  readily  and  quickly.  Only  one  child  learned  to 
work  readily  with  fractions.  The  reader  will  plea.se  notice 
that  these  are  results  up  to  May,  1885.  To-day  the  upper 
class  works  with  fractions,  both  with  common  and  decimal 
fractions,  and  does  it  well. 

In  religion  instruction  is  given  regularly,  but  only  twen- 
ty-two of  the  above-mentioned  thirty  were  admitted  to  the 
annual  confirmation,  three  to  the  first  communion,  so  that 
of  five  it  must  be  said  that  they  could  not  pass  the  examina- 
tion in  church  and  were  set  back. 

IV.  What  became  of  the  thirty  children  ?  The  following 
carefully  gathered  facts  will  answer  the  question : 

3  locksmiths,  1  clerk  in  a  store, 

1  house-painter,  1  messenger, 

1  mason,  1  spool- worker, 

1  tinsmith,  1  factory -hand  (boy), 


84  ELBERFELD-BARMEX   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

1  baker,  4  factory-hands  (girls), 

1  tailor,  6  servant-girls, 

1  ribbon-weaver,  3  bodily  weak,  not  working, 

1  bookbinder,  3  still  undecided. 

In  other  words,  twenty-four  of  the  thirty  have  become 
useful  members  of  society  and  possibly  three  more  will  be, 
while  three  are  ill.     This  certainly  is  an  admirable  showing. 

C.  The  Methods  pursued. — The  reader,  I  believe,  will  un- 
derstand why  I  bestow  much  attention  to  this  special  school. 
It  is  something  riQw:,  perhaps  not  new  in  theory,  but  cer- 
tainly new  in  practice.  A  body  of  men  and  women  who  are 
looking  for  modern  ideas  and  advanced  methods  in  teaching 
must  take  cognizance  of  a  trial  like  this,  and  hear  a  truthful 
account  of  the  working  of  a  school  which  to  my  mind  is 
destined  to  cause  a  revolution  in  the  organization  of  the  en- 
tire common-school  system  in  no  far-distant  time.  Follow 
me,  candid  reader,  and  dismiss  all  prejudice.  Let  us  enter 
this  school  for  dullards.  Rest  assured,  you  will  pick  up  a 
suggestion  here  and  there  which  may  be  of  value  to  you. 

We  enter  the  lowest  grade.  The  children  here  are  be- 
tween eight  and  ten  years  of  age,  but  as  undeveloped  as 
other  children  at  four.  They  attended  the  common  school 
two  years,  were  found  unable  to  learn  by  means  of  the 
methods  pursued  there,  and  are  treated  here  with  special  care. 
A  great  number  of  preparatory  exercises  are  needed  which 
are  deemed  unnecessary  in  other  schools.  There  they  sit  at 
a  Kindergarten-table,  nearly  all  bearing  the  unmistakable 
stamp  of  stupidity  on  their  faces.  Some  are  neatly  di'essed, 
being  evidently  children  of  wealthy  parents  ;  some  are 
clothed  raggedly.  But  the  teachers  insist  upon  cleanliness 
scrupulously.  Some  have  fine  features  and  skulls,  but  slob- 
bering mouths;  others  are  tall  and  well  built,  but  have  small 
and  abnormal  skulls ;  still  others  have  beautifully  chiseled 
features,  but  a  dull  stare  in  their  eyes. 

They  are  learning  numbers.  Before  them  lies  a  heap  of 
pegs  of  ebony  and  boxwood  about  an  inch  long  and  half  an 
inch  thick.     Teacher,  "  See  what  I  do."    (Taking  three  pegs 


A   SEPARATE  SCHOOL  FOB  DULLARDS. 


85 


in  his  hand  and  placing  them  in  the  groove  of  a  frame  such 
as  is  shown  in  the  cut.)  "  Do  as  I  do."  Pupils  take  three, 
one  takes  four,  another  two,  without  seeing  their  error. 


Fig.  87. 


This  exercise  is  continued.  Its  object  is  to  take  and  set  up 
as  many  as  are  shown.  After  the  number  has  been  recog- 
nized, the  fingers  are  used  in  counting.  Other  objects  are 
used  for  the  same  purix)se.  One  little  boy  thought  that 
three  meant  three  pegs  always.  He  could  not  see  instantly 
that  the  number  three  might  be  applied  to  other  objects. 
When  a  number  has  been  recognized,  counting  it  one  at  a 
time,  of  course,  it  is  analyzed — that  is,  its  component  parts 
are  found. 

Teacher  and  pupils  converse  without  restraint.  Some  of 
the  pupils  have  to  be  urged  to  action,  being  apt  to  sit  in  dull 
contemplation  of  distant  objects.  While  the  teacher  is  thus 
busy  with  the  beginners,  the  other  division  is  working  with 
numbers  on  their  slates.  These  pupils  work  aloud,  heedless 
of  the  disturbance  they  are  causing — in  fact,  not  knowing 
that  they  are  noisy.  The  teacher  tells  us  that  it  is  useless  to 
prohibit  whispering  and  talking,  simply  because  the  pupils 
would  forget  the  order,  and  it  does  not  disturb  him  in  the 
least,  being  occupied  with  the  little  ones  in  the  farthest 
comer  of  the  spacious  room. 


86  ELBERFELD-BIRMEN  (RHEXI^n  PRUSSIA). 

When  the  lesson  is  concluded  the  teacher  shows  us  the 
means  of  exemplification  he  has  in  form  of  beans,  peas,  but- 
tons, sticks,  etc.  A  large  cupboard  is  full  of  the  most  in- 
genious devices,  nearly  all  well  known  to  teachers  who  be- 
lieve in  approaching  the  mind  through  the  avenues  of  the 
senses.  This  being  the  hour  for  arithmetic,  we  repair  to  the 
middle  grade,  where  the  Russian  numeral  frame  is  used,  and 
here  we  find  the  children  pondering  over  such  questions  as: 
"  How  many  times  is  9  contained  in  28  ? "  "  Is  28  a  table 
number  ? "  (That  means,  Is  28  one  of  the  numbers  in  the 
multiplication-table  of  9  ?J  "No."  ''What  is  the  nearest 
below  ? "  Child,  beginning  with  9,  says,  "  9,  18,  27,"  and,  ah 
yes,  "  9  is  found  three  times  in  28."  "  Is  there  nothing  left 
if  you  take  9  from  28  three  times  ? "  Again  a  moment's  hard 
thought  and  "  No  "  is  the  answer.  Again  the  whole  work 
has  to  be  repeated,  till  finally  the  complete  answer  comes, 
"  9  is  contained  in  28  three  times  and  1  over."  A  look  of 
joy  brightens  the  child's  face,  and  from  the  fairly  beaming 
countenance  of  the  teacher  he  reads  his  reward  and  falls 
back,  to  let  some  other  child  try  his  luck. 

"  How  many  times  is  7  in  19  ? "  A  dead  halt.  "  Nearly, 
three  times,"  comes  the  answer  at  last.  "  How  many  are 
wanting  ? "  "  Only  two."  "  Then  it  isn't  three  times.  How 
many  times  Ls  it  ? "  Again  the  child  contracts  its  brow  and 
studies.  At  last  it  says  with  the  air  of  conviction,  "  Three 
times " ;  and  again  with  Job-like  patience  the  teacher  goes 
over  the  same  ground  till  the  child  gets  the  answer  correctly. 
There  is  no  prompting  done  by  the  teacher.  All  he  does  is 
to  assist  the  child  in  thinking,  and  approach  the  mind 
through  the  avenues  of  the  senses. 

It  was  in  this  grade  where  I  detectetl  an  error  I  had  fre- 
quently heard  in  Grerman  schools.  The  teachers  of  this 
si)ecial  school  being  almost  faultless  methodicians,  I  venture 
to  mention  the  error,  hoping  that  it  will  not  be  interpreted 
as  hypercritical  on  my  part.  I  heard  the  teacher  ask,  "  Tell 
the  ninth  part  of  forty-eight."  Answer,  "  Five  and  three 
over."    The  ninth  pai-t  could  only  have  been  five  and  one 


A   SEPARATE   SCHOOL   FOR   DULLARDS.  87 

thh'd,  for  such  parts  are  equal  parts.  But,  fractional  expres- 
sions being  out  of  the  question  in  this  school,  he  ought  to 
have  asked,  "  How  many  times  is  nine  contained  in  forty- 
eight  ? "  However,  this  is  trifling,  and  I  almost  blush  for 
having  mentioned  it.  In  all  the  arithmetical  exercises  in 
the  two  lower  grades  I  find  that  no  abstract  example  is  of- 
fei'ed  and  solved.  The  pupils  see  the  example  first  in  objects 
as  given  by  the  teachers  in  balls,  pegs,  sticks,  etc.,  then  do 
it,  handling  the  objects — that  is,  solving  it  in  reality,  and, 
lastly,  tell  about  it.  Every  lesson  in  this  school  is  a  lan- 
guage-lesson. 

The  singing  which  followed  was  rather  discordant  and 
inharmonious  ;  but  it  proved  that  the  school  attempts  to 
awaken  every  latent  talent  in  these  children. 

Then  followed  a  lesson  in  biblical  history.  In  the  lowest 
grade  this  instruction  is  assisted  by  beautiful  mounted  pict- 
ures of  great  artistic  value.  The  narrative  under  discus- 
sion was  "  Samuel  and  the  High-Priest  Eli. "  I  did  not 
enjoy  this  lesson  as  much  as  others,  because  I  saw  that 
these  intellectually  weak  children  were  unable  to  im- 
agine themselves  back  in  the  time  of  Eli.  This  lesson 
in  its  incongruity  with  the  circumstances  resembled  a 
great  bowlder  on  a  smooth  praine.  It  had  no  business  in 
this  school,  and  was  evidently  a  mere  concession  to  the 
intensely  religious  sentiment  of  the  town.  Elberfeld,  as  is 
well  known,  is  the  stronghold  of  Protestantism  in  Rhenish 
Prussia. 

One  of  the  teachers  stated  that  this  day  was  an  unlucky 
day,  because  the  pupils  were  moi*e  than  any  other  people  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  moon,  and  the  moon  had  just  begun 
its  first  quarter.  I  had  too  often  noticed  this  cause  of  dis- 
turbance in  my  own  schools,  to  smile  incredulously.  As  long 
as  I  had  schools  to  sujiervise  I  nerved  myself  particularly  at 
the  time  of  the  moon's  first  quarter,  for  invariably  at  that 
time  pupils  were  referred  to  me  for  correction.  The  teachers 
seemed  to  be  more  irritable  and  the  youngsters  more  per- 
verse than  at  other  times. 


88  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

D.  Means  of  Instruction. — "  It  seems  that  every  thought 
in  these  children  must  be  assisted  by  instruments  to  come  to 
light,"  said  the  teacher.  "  We  can  not  presuppose  a  stock 
of  ideas  in  these  children  as  may  be  done  in  other  schools. 
We  are  obliged  to  begin  in  the  most  elementary  way  possible. 
Many  of  them  can  not  even  '  talk  straight,'  articulation  being 
impaired.  Here  is  a  set  of  charts  of  simple  pictures.  See 
how  we  use  them."  Placing  a  chart  on  the  easel  before  the 
class  he  says,  ''  What  is  this  ? "  Child,  "  Chow,"  giving  the 
c  a  guttural  sound.  "No,  child,  say  cow."  Child,  "Cow." 
"Again,  cow,  once  more."  "Tow."  "No,  child,  look  how 
I  say  it,  cccow."  "Chow."  "Look  again.  Cow."  Child, 
"  Tow. "    "  Try  again,  cow. "    Child,  "  Tow. " 

Turning  to  me  the  teacher  said :  "  Notice  that  this  is  not 
perverseness,  but  want  of  volition.  The  child  has  no  com- 
mand over  its  vocal  organs.  Anna  may  say  a  word  cor- 
rectly ten  times.  All  of  a  sudden  she  changes  a  sound  and 
pronounces  it  incoiTectly  and  perseveres  in  it."  The  charts 
used  were  twenty-four  in  number,  each  having  some  sixteen 
representations  of  objects,  the  names  of  which  were  arranged 
with  regard  to  the  difficulties  offered  by  the  phonic  elements 
of  which  they  were  built. 

Another  set  of  charts  or  tablets  in  use  was  for  the  purpose 
of  developing  the  sense  of  color.  The  tablets  contained  the 
different  shades  of  color  from  the  brightest  hue  to  the  faint- 
est tint.  Pieces  of  pasteboard  colored  similarly  had  to  be 
laid  on  and  matched  in  color.  Some  of  these  children  did  it 
very  nicely,  but  others  were  found  indifferent  to  finer  shades 
of  color,  if  not  color-blind.  A  third  set  of  pictures  were 
used  to  illustrate  zoology,  another  botany — that  is  to  say,  in 
other  schools  they  might  be  used  thus ;  here  they  could  be 
employed  only  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  children 
to  talk  a  little. 

Pictures  illustrating  the  trades,  the  seasons,  biblical  his- 
tory, Hey's  fables,  and  geography,  were  shown.  Most  were 
very  costly  affairs,  true  masterpieces  of  art.  "  Why  don't 
you  hang  them  up  and  decorate  these  dreary  walls  with 


A  gnPARATE   SCHOOL  FOR  DULLARDS.  89 

t!icm  ?  Would  it  not  interest  these  children  and  quicken 
their  imagination  ?  "  I  asked.  "  My  dear  sir,"  was  the  reply, 
"  every  visitor  asks  me  the  same  question,  and  invariably  I 
answer,  We  must  not  dissipate  the  attention  of  these  children, 
must  concentrate  it  upon  one  point  or  nothing  will  be  gained. 
If  you  could  see  with  what  patience  we  are  obliged  to  pi"o- 
ceed,  you  would  understand  how  anxious  we  are  to  keep  the 
children's  minds  bent  upon  one  thing.  Some  things  can  not 
be  comprehended  at  all,  and  must  be  acquired  mechanic- 
ally." 

One  shelf  of  the  spacious  cupboard  was  filled  with  a  great 
number  of  little  objects,  such  as  bells^  cubes,  marbles,  keys, 
bottles,  and  cheap  playthings,  each  of  which  is  there  in  dupli- 
cate. Specially  dull  pupils  are  asked  to  find  a  duplicate  of 
an  object  shown  him,  and  he  sometimes  hesitates  before  he 
decides  which  to  take.  After  like  things  have  been  matched, 
the  pupil  is  set  to  find  others  of  the  same  class.  Here  the 
first  attempt  at  generalization  is  made.  Keys  of  different 
sizes  and  shapes  are  nevertheless  all  keys,  etc.  Building- 
blocks  are  used  to  match  sizes. 

During  an  articulation  lesson  I  heard,  a  pupil  was  found 
to  stutter  seriously.  He  was  told  to  breathe  deep  every  time 
he  had  to  answer  a  question.  He  did  so,  and  it  was  success- 
ful. In  order  to  prove  to  me  that  a  deep  breath  taken  before 
the  mouth  Avas  opened  for  speech  prevented  stuttering,  the 
teacher  asked  this  boy  several  questions  in  quick  succession, 
and  the  advice  proved  good  always.  Then  I  took  the  boy 
aside  and  conversed  with  him  without  giving  hinx  the  sign 
to  take  a  deep  breath,  and  lo  !  the  boy  stuttered  so  that  it 
was  ijainful  to  behold. 

(It  may  be  said,  in  parenthesis,  that  the  efficient  school- 
inspector.  Dr.  Boodstein,  contemplates  the  establishment  of 
a  special  school  here  in  Elberfeld  for  children  ivith  defect- 
ive speech.  He  has  recently  issued  a  circular  inquiring 
about  the  number  of  such  cases  in  the  common  school,  the 
kinds  of  defect,  length  of  school  attendance,  and  home  con- 
ditions.    This  inquiry  has  special  reference  to  stuttering 


90  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

children.  Elberfeld  is  destined  to  become  an  educational 
Mecca  if  it  perseveres  in  its  laudable  efforts  at  establishing 
separate  schools.  There  is  no  danger  of  its  going  too  far  in 
this  tendency,  for  the  financial  difficulties  to  be  overcome 
are  much  too  great,  and  most  of  these  Prussian  cities  are 
deeply  in  debt.) 

The  children  are  induced  to  bring  to  school  whatever 
gives  them  pleasure,  and  the  little  treasures  are  well  treated 
and  kept  in  the  class  museum.  Some  of  these  things  require 
paper  boxes  to  keep  them  in.  These  are  made  by  the  older 
pupils,  who  thus  get  a  little  practice  in  industrial  pursuits. 
Lace-work,  paper-folding,  "  figure-laying  "  (by  means  of  lit- 
tle colored  pieces  of  pasteboard),  are  done  to  keep  the  chil- 
dren busy  and  profitably  engaged  between  lessons  in  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  religion. 

Drawing  is  hardly  attempted;  singing  is  very  difficult. 
Very  few  of  these  children  are  musically  inclined.  Geog- 
raphy does  not  extend  beyond  the  nearest  hills,  simply  be- 
cause this  is  a  study  which  requires  greater  imaginative 
powers  than  these  children  possess ;  indeed,  it  may  be  said 
that  in  nothing  are  they  so  deficient  as  in  the  power  of  ab- 
straction and  imagination.  The  girls  learn  a  little  of 
needlework  from  the  principal's  wife,  who  comes  at  stated 
hours. 

A  form-lesson  greatly  interested  me.  I  will  merely  state 
the  results : 

"This  is  a  straight  line.      (The 

term  horizontal  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion.) A  point  is  in  the  middle  of 
the  straight  line.  It  cuts  the  line  into  two  halves.  The  two 
halves  are  equally  large.  (It  was  found  too  deep  a  thought 
to  see  that  one  half  must  be  as  long  as  the  other,  or  it  could 
not  be  a  half.) 

"  There  is  a  point  on  either  end  of  the  line.    These  are  the 
end  points.     One  point  cuts  the  line 

I 1 1 1 1     into  halves,  and  each  half  is  cut  into 

two  equal  parts. 


A  VERY  PRACTICAL  DEVICE.  91 

"If  these  lines  are  len^hened,  they  will  touch  and  cixjss 
each  other.    One  is  a  slanting  line.    Oh,  yes,  both  are  sti*aight 

lines.     (It  was  a  most  laborious  task     

to  make  the  boys  see  that  a  straight 
line  is  the  shortest  distance  between 
two  points  ;  but  at  last  the  truth 
seemed  to  dawn  upon  them.) 

"  A  slanting  line  'hits'  the  straight 
line.    It  does  so  below  the  line. 

"  A  slanting  line  'cuts'  the  straight 
line.     It  cuts  it  in  the  middle,  etc." 

These  are  the  results  obtained  by  many  minutes  of  pa- 
tient questioning  and  applying  the  crayon.  Many  answers 
had  to  be  corrected  and  polished  before  they  could  be  ac- 
cepted and  rejjeated  in  chorus. 

Verily,  thought  I,  when  I  left  this  school  for  dullards, 
the  patience  of  ten  Jobs  is  needed  to  teach  here,  and  that 
would  not  suffice  sometimes.  Not  for  any  amount  of  money 
could  I  be  persuaded  to  try  my  hand  at  such  Sisyphus  work ; 
but  all  honor  to  those  teachers  who  attempt  what,  as  Schil- 
ler says,  the  gods  do  in  vain,  to  wit,  fight  with  stupidity. 

4.  A  Very  Practical  Device. 

A  very  animated  discussion  regarding  the  influence  of 
school  attendance  upon  the  eye-sight  of  the  pupils  has  been 
filling  school  journals  and  scientific  magazines  in  Germany 
for  a  number  of  years.  A  similar  discussion  is  now  being 
carried  on  in  America.  It  is  a  timely  topic  in  America, 
where  the  evil  influence  of  small  type  in  text-books  and  of 
deficient  light  has  been  recognized  promptly,  although  it  had 
not  been  prevalent.  Here  in  Germany  the  discussion  was 
opened  several  years  ago  by  Dr.  H.  Cohn,  of  Breslau,  and 
has  come  nearer  a  final  solution  than  the  disciLSsion  in 
America,  where  some  unripe  opinions  are  still  uttered  and 
reverently  listened  to.  I  had  no  intention  of  entering  into 
the  discussion,  nor  have  I  now ;  but  I  must  be  time  to  my 
present  vocation,  that  of  a  reporter.     Dr.  Cohn,  of  whom  it 


92  ELBERFELD-BARMEN   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

rnay  be  said  that  he  was  the  instigator  of  the  agitation,  has 
made  the  most  practical  suggestions.  His  last  and  most 
practical  of  all,  I  believe,  will  be  welcomed  in  America. 

The  suggestion  has  a  truly  American  flavor  about  it.    Its 
simplicity  and  practicability  are  obvious  at  the  first  glance. 

B  S  @  S  S  B 
S  Q  S  D  S 

S  S  B  s 

m  s  s 

m    Ea    m 

nR     ^^ffl     tail     ^^^     tyj 
S   m   S   ^   ffi 


Fia.  89. 


He  has  issued  a  tablet  printed  on  cardboard,  nine  by  nine 
inches,  which  has  four  brass  loops,  one  on  each  side,  so  that 
it  may  be  hung  up  on  any  of  the  four  sides.  This  tablet  is 
placed  on  the  wall,  near  a  window  where  the  light  will  be 


A  VERY  PRACTICAL  DEVICE.  93 

strong.  Care  is  taken  to  hang  it  at  an  average  height  of  the 
pupils'  eyes.  The  tablet  contains  the  following  marks.  I 
send  them  in  their  original  size,  as  published  by  Dr.  Cohn, 
for  reproduction  by  an  artist,  and  hope  to  see  them  copied  in 
that  size  exactly,  so  that  they  may  be  used  in  the  schools  of 
America.  I  trust  some  enterprising  publisher  will  reprint  a 
separate  edition  on  immaculate  white  Bristol  cardboaixl,  with 
a  broad  margin  all  around  the  thirty-six  signs.  I  find  the 
device  in  use  here  everywhere. 

Tablet  to  Test  the  Vision  of  School-Children. — Dr.  Cohn's 
instructions  how  to  use  the  tablet: 

1.  The  tablet  is  to  be  suspended  on  the  wall  near  the 
window,  on  a  level  with  the  average  pupil's  eyes. 

2.  The  pupil  whose  eyes  are  to  be  tested  is  placed  at  a 
distance  of  six  metres  (about  six  and  a  balf  yards).  He 
is  asked  to  state  quickly  in  what  direction  the  figures  or 
signs  arc  open,  namely,  above  or  below,  on  the  right  or  left 
side. 

3.  All  guessing  or  committing  to  memory  may  be  pre- 
vented by  turning  the  tablet,  which  is  easily  done,  each  side 
of  the  square  being  provided  with  a  loop ;  or  the  order  may 
be  given  to  read  the  figures  backward  or  downwaixi  or  up- 
ward. 

4.  In  order  to  test  each  eye  separately,  the  pupil  should  be 
ordered  to  keep  one  eye  closed. 

5.  He  who  can  read  the  thirty -six  signs  correctly  in 
thirty  seconds  at  a  distance  of  six  metres  possesses  good 
eyes — that  is,  he  has  the  strength  of  vision  called  unity  of 
vision :  msus  =  f  =  1  (according  to  the  authority  of  Snellen). 

6.  A  pupil  who  can  read  them  correctly  at  a  distance  of 
seven  metres  has  a  vision  of  |  strength ;  at  nine  metres,  |  or 
1^;  at  twelve  metres,  V-  =  2,  or  double  strength  of  vision. 

7.  He  who  can  recognize  the  signs  and  read  them  aloud 
in  thirty-six  seconds  at  5,  4,  3,  2,  1  metre  has  |,  i  (or  f),  | 
(or  j),  f  (or  ^),  and  ^  strength  of  vision.  In  such  cases  a  re- 
liable optician  will  furnish  suitable  glasses  for  near-sighted- 
ness, being  guided  by  these  figures. 


94:  CREFSLD   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

8.  The  weakest  concave  glasses  with  which  the  signs  can 
be  seen  at  a  distance  of  six  metres  indicates  the  degi-ee  of 
near-sightedness.  The  strongest  convex  glasses  with  which 
they  can  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  six  metres  indicates  the  de- 
gree of  far-sightedness. 

9.  If  a  pupil  of  normal  vision  (see  section  5)  can  not  see 
the  writing  on  the  blackboard  at  a  distance  of  six  metres, 
the  light  in  the  room  is  insufficient. 

10.  It  is  desirable  to  keep  the  tablet  covered  when  not  in 
use,  to  keep  it  clean.  On  cloudy  or  gloomy  days  it  should 
be  hung  up  or  uncovered  to  test  the  strength  of  the  light  in 
the  room,  a  pupil  of  normal  sight  being  the  tester  at  a  dis- 
tance of  six  metres. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CREFELD  {RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

1.  How  English  is  taught  in  Germany. 

For  more  than  one  reason  I  had  studiously  avoided 
teachers  of  languages ;  but,  in  a  city  where  I  was  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  principal  of  the  gymnasium,  I  inquired 
about  the  present  status  of  the  method  of  teaching  modern 
languages,  and  struck  a  rich  field.  I  was  ushered  into  a 
class-room  where  the  boys  of  "  Tertia  "  were  taught  English. 
The  Tertia  represents  the  eighth  school  year  or  the  fourth  in 
the  high-school.  The  teacher  had  been  a  tutor  in  England, 
and  spoke  English  very  fluently.  His  method  did  not  i^- 
semble  the  ancient  Ollendorfian  method,  nor  had  it  much  in 
conmaon  with  Sauveur's  method.  He  proved  once  again 
that  the  truth  is  not  found  in  extremes,  but  in  the  middle. 
It  was  a  decidedly  instructive  and  fruitful  lesson.  Let  me 
give  a  meager  outline  of  it : 

A  pupil  told  in  English  the  historical  anecdote  of  the 
Spartan  mother  who  had  two  sons  in  the  war.     When  a 


HOW  ENGLISH  IS  TAUGHT  IN  GERMANY.  95 

messenger  came  to  her  to  announce  that  both  her  sons  had 
been  killed  in  the  battle,  she  interrupted  him,  saying,  "I 
■want  to  know  whether  the  battle  was  won  by  the  Spartans." 
"  It  was,"  was  the  reply.  "  Then,"  exclaimed  the  mother,  "  I 
rejoice  in  the  death  of  my  sons  who  have  died  for  the  benefit 
of  their  country." 

This  anecdote  was  repeated  several  times  in  the  pupils' 
own  English.  Errors  were  instantly  corrected.  Questions 
then  followed,  which  caused  a  diflPerent  construction  of  the 
sentences  and  idioms.  While  in  the  story,  as  told  first,  the 
sentence  reads,  "  I  want  to  know,"  "variations  now  came,  such 
as,  "  I  wanted  to  know,  I  want  to  find  out,  I  need  to  know,  I 
do  want  to  know,  I  shall  want  information,"  etc.  "  I  rejoice 
in  the  death — "  was  changed  to  I  am  proud  of,  I  am  de- 
lighted with,  I  am  glad  that,  etc. 

Now,  idiomatic  expressions,  such  as,  to  be  delighted  with, 
glad  of,  to  rejoice  in,  to  be  exultant  over,  were  treated  and 
similar  cases  looked  up,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  fields,  in  the 
yard.  After  the  idiomatic  part  of  the  story  was  finished,  the 
story  was  repeated  orally,  and  a  greater  smoothness  and  ele- 
gance of  expression  was  noticeable  in  its  rendition.  Now 
followed  a  grammatical  analysis  of  certain  sentences,  nota- 
bly with  reference  to  the  pasition  of  the  adverb.  This  part 
of  the  lesson  was  conducted  partly  on  the  board  with  dia- 
grams. 

The  pupils'  familiarity  with  Latin  and  German  grammar 
enabled  them  to  compare  the  rules  of  the  language  they 
were  studying  with  those  of  others ;  indeed,  they  discovered 
and  formulated  rules  in  English  grammar  which  will  for- 
ever remain  a  book  sealed  with  seven  seals  to  our  American 
children,  who  aim  at  a  common  English  education  only. 
Not  that  I  think  these  grammar  rules  are  needed  to  become 
a  good  citizen.  I  am  far  from  claiming  that.  I  only  wish 
to  emphasize  that  in  rational  instruction  one  branch  of  study 
should  assist  the  other,  as  the  grammar  of  one  language  did 
the  study  of  another  in  this  lesson. 

After  this  exercise  in  syntax,  one  in  etymology  followed, 
8 


96 


CREFELD   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


and  here  it  was  where  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  the  English 
language  came  to  light,  while  in  a  discussion  of  the  orthog- 
raphy its  darkest  spot  was  revealed. 

After  the  anecdote  mentioned  above  was  thoroughly 
''  squeezed  "  and  nothing  new  coiild  be  gained  from  it  any 
more,  the  boys  were  told  to  get  their  English  readers.  Their 
reading  was  fluent  as  their  talk  was  comparatively  correct; 
but  the  best  and  most  notable  feature  of  this  whole  lesson 
was  that  teacher  and  pupils  conversed  almost  exclusively  in 
English.  Except  where  new  rules  had  to  be  formulated, 
English  was  the  medium  of  instruction  throughout. 

2.  A  Primary  Lesson  in  Mensuration. 

In  one  of  the  largest  cities  on  the  lower  Rhine  I  was 
deeply  impressed  with  the  excellent  work  done  in  the 
schools.  Nowhere  had  I  seen  such  harmony  between  the 
different  teachers  and  schools.    Comparisons  are  odious;  but 

from  the  bottom  of  my  heart  I  wished  to  have  friend  B 

(my  eternal  opponent  in  the  discussion  of  modern  methods 
of  teaching,  and  withal  my  dearest  friend)  with  me  to  show 
him  the  results  of  rational  application 
of  the  developing  method.  Among  the 
lessons  I  heard  was  one  in  measuri^ig. 
The  pupils  could  not  have  been  older 
than  eleven  or  twelve  years  on  an 
average.  I  will  endeavor  to  sketch  the 
lesson  from  notes  taken  on  the  spot. 

The  teacher  drew  a  square  on  the 

blackboard  and    divided    it    into  four 

equal  strips;  then  the  strips  into  four 

equal  parts  each,  as  in  the  margin.     During  the  entire  lesson 

the  pupils  drew  on  their  slates  the  same  figures  which  they 

saw  their  teacher  draw. 

Teacher.  ''  How  many  of  these  little  squares  are  there  in 
one  row  ? " 

Pupil.  "  There  are  four  of  them  in  one  row." 

The  pupils  always  answered  in  complete  sentences,  but  for 


Fio.  90. 


LESSON   IN  MENSURATION. 


97 


brevity's  sake  I  will  not  repeat  their  complete  answers.    The 
lesson  was  one  in  drawing,  arithmetic,  and  language. 

Teacher.  "  How  many  of  such  rows  ? " 

Pupil.  "Four." 

Teacher.  "Have  they  all  the  same  number  of  little 
squares  ? " 

Pupil.  "Yes." 

Teacher.  "  Then  if  there  are  four  in  one  row,  and  there 
being  four  of  such  rows,  how  many  must  there  be  in  all  ? " 

Pupil.  "There  must  be  four  times  four,  or  sixteen  in 
all." 

Teacher.  "  Suppose  you  turn  the  square  so  that  the  top 
is  on  the  left  side,  could  the  measuring  be  done  in  the  same 
way  ?    Try  it  on  the  slates." 

Pupil.  "  Yes,  sir  ;  it  makes  no  difference  which  way  I 
hold  the  square." 

Teacher.  "Now  tell  me  how  you  measure  this  figure 
which  is  four  inches  each  way. " 

Pupil.  "  If  there  are  four  inches  on  one  side,  it  means 
that  there  are  four  square  inches  in  a  row ;  and,  there  being 
four  of  such  rows,  there  must  be  four  times  four  square 
inches,  or  sixteen  square  inches 
in  the  large  square." 

Other  squares  of  different 
dimensions  are  drawn  and 
measured  in  the  same  way. 

Teacher.  "  Now  measure 
this  four-cornered  figure"  (Fig. 
91). 

Pupil.  "It  has  six  square  Fig.  91. 

inches  in  a  row  and  fotir  of 

such  rows ;  then  it  must  measure  four  times  six  or  twenty- 
four  square  inches. " 

Teacher.  "  Count  them  and  see  whether  that  is  right." 

Pupil.  "It  is." 

Teacher.  "  Turn  your  slates  so  that  the  long  sides  of  this 
figure  are  the  side  lines.     How  do  you  measure  now  ? " 


98 


CREFELD   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


Pupil.  "  The  same  way,  only  that  there  are  only  four  in 
the  first  row ;  but  then  there  being  six  of  such  rows  gives 
the  same  result.  Four  times  six  is  equal  to  six  times 
four." 

Teacher.  "  Is  it  necessary  every  time  to  lay  off  the  whole 
figure  in  little  squares  in  order  to  measure  it  ? " 

Pupil.  "  No ;  all  you  would  need  to  do  is  to  measure  two 
sides  and  multiply  the  two  numbers." 
Teacher.  "  Then  let  us  do  it." 

Other  parallelograms  of  different  sizes  are  drawn  and 
measured,  the  pupils  rapidly  sketched  the  figures,  as  the 
teacher  did  it  on  the  board. 

Teacher.  "  Let  us  go  back  to  our  first  square.  Draw  a 
line  across  it  from  one  corner  to  the  opposite  comer.  What 
does  that  line  do  ?  " 

Pupil.  "  It  divides  the  square  into  two  three-cornered 
figures  or  into  two  halves." 

Teacher.  "  Well,  if  the  square  measured  sixteen  square 
inches,  what  will  one  of  these  triangles 
measure  ? " 

Pupil.  "  Eight  square  inches." 
Teacher.  "Now,  let  us  divide  the 
square  thus.  (See  figure  in  the  margin 
and  dividing  line  from  left  to  right.) 
Is  this  kind  of  a  half  as  large  as  the 
triangular  half  ? " 
Fio.  92.  (Pupils  hesitate.) 

Teacher.  "If  your  mother  had  a 
gingerbread  cake  of  this  shape,  and  you  were  told  that  you 
might  take  one  half  of  it,  how  would  you  cut  it  ? " 

(Pupil  indicates  that  he  would  cut  it  on  the  diagonal.) 
Teacher.  "Why  thus?" 
Pupil.  "  Because  I  can  begin  to  eat  it  better." 
(A  ripple  of  laughter  follows,  but  it  causes  no  disorder: 
Proof  that  the  pupils  are  quite  at  ease.) 

Teacher.  "  Well,  children,  what  kind  of  a  half  would  be 
larger  ? "  - 


LESSON   IN  MENSURATION. 


99 


Pupil.  "  They  must  be  alike.  A  half  can  not  be  smaller 
or  greater  than  the  other  half." 

By  going  over  the  two  figures  the  pupils  soon  see  that  it 
is  immaterial  which  way  the  cut  is  made,  and  that  the  tri- 
angle measures  one  half  of  the  square. 

Now  the  diagonal  is  drawn  through  the  parallelogram, 
and  the  same  truth  is  discovered.  Then  follows  the  rule 
that  such  triangles  are  measured  by  multiplying  the  two 
sides  of  the  rectangular  figure  and  dividing  the  product  by 
two. 

Then  the  rhombus  (Fig.  93)  was  drawn,  and  the  pupils  were 
told  that  multiplying  the 
two  sides  would  not  do.  The 
teacher  demonstrated  this 
in  an  ingenious  way.  He 
took  an  empty  slate-frame 
(Fig.  21)  and  pressed  it  into 
the  form  of  a  rhomboid. 
When  the  pupils  still  doubt- 
ed, he  pressed  it  still  more,  so  that  the  height  was  only  one 
inch,  and  thus  showed  them  that  the  area  of  a  rhombus 
made  of  the  four  equal  lines  of  a  square  was  smaller  than 
that  of  the  square. 

N.  B. — No  such  technical  terms  as  parallelogram,  rhom- 
bus, etc.,  were  used,  except  square  and  triangle. 

The  measuring  of  the  rhombus  was  performed  as  the 
dotted  lines  in  the  figure  indicate,  and  the  rule,  that  it  is 


Fig.  93. 


Fig.  94. 


measiured  by  multiplying  one  of  the  long  sides  by  the 
height,  fell  like  a  ripe  fruit  from  the  tree  of  experience. 
Just  then  the  bell  rang  and  the  class  was  dismissed.  The 
teacher  told  me  that  next  day  he  would  take  the  trapezoid 


100  CREFELD   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

also.  That,  however,  was  as  far  as  he  cared  to  g'o  with  these 
young  pupils. 

General  Walker's  Echo  in  Germany. — Being  asked  why 
he  refrained  from  using  any  technical  terms,  the  teacher 
said :  "  No  ;  we  don't  burden  the  memories  of  our  pupils 
with  technical  terms  such  as  trapezoid,  rhomboid,  parallelo- 
gram, parallelopipedon,  etc.  We  call  a  rhomboid  a  four- 
cornered  figure  and  are  done  with  it.  The  child  in  the  com- 
mon school  is  no  happier,  nor  wiser,  nor  better  prepared  for 
life  when  he  has  learned  these  Latin  and  Greek  terms.  If  a 
boy  enters  a  technical  or  a  high  school  and  studies  geome- 
try, the  terms  will  be  given  him  there.  The  common  school 
has  no  business  to  burden  its  course  with  ballast." 

Further  conversation  with  the  faculty  of  the  school  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  they  all  entertained  the  same  view  which 
General  Walker  in  Boston  urged  lately,  namely,  that  the 
study  of  arithmetic  had  in  the  course  of  time  become  over- 
burdened with  matter  of  a  nature  unsuited  for  the  pupils  of 
a  common  school,  and  that  efforts  were  being  made  every- 
where in  Germany  to  eliminate  such  things.  Said  the  rec- 
tor of  the  school,  to  whom  the  assistant  teachers  all  looked 
up  with  great  veneration,  he  being  a  fine-looking,  white- 
haired  man:  "We  sound  the  battle-cry,  ^Elimination,'  all 
along  the  line.  We  want  to  eliminate  much  from  an  over- 
crowded course  of  study  in  geography,  grammar,  and  arith- 
metic, and  add  more  literature  and  history  so  as  to  counter- 
act the  vicious  influences  of  bad  reading-matter  smuggled 
into  the  hands  of  our  pupils  by.  Heaven  knows,  unscrupu- 
lous publishers.  We  want  to  do  more  in  manual  training, 
more  in  the  so-called  accomplishments,  drawing,  music,  etc., 
introduce  a  little  qf  book-keeping,  and  thus  make  the  com- 
mon-school education  what  it  ought  to  be — practical.  We 
want  to  teach  less  for  oblivion  than  hitherto." 

I  need  not  assure  my  readers  how  heartily  I  agreed  with 
him.  I  felt  quite  at  home  among  this  earnest  and  enthusi- 
astic body  of  teachers. 


INDIVIDUALITY  IN  TEACHING.  101 

3.  Individuality  m  Teaching. 

During  my  frequent  visits  to  schools  here  in  Germany 
one  fact  claims  my  attention  with  greater  force  every  day. 
It  is  the  absence  of  that  uniformity  in  methods  so  often  no- 
ticeable in  American  city  school  systems.  A  school  super- 
intendent in  America,  if  he  be  a  man  of  strong  principles, 
firm  convictions,  and  practical  experience  in  teaching,  will 
often  unintentionally  impress  his  personal  views,  his  own 
modes  and  manners  of  doing,  upon  his  subordinates.  Since 
the  great  majority  of  teachers  in  American  cities  are  women 
who  have  no  individual  opinion  on  educational  matters, 
but  passively  obey  instructions  without  discriminating,  and 
slavishly  copy  models  given  them,  it  is  easily  seen  that 
the  superintendent  very  often  becomes  the  motive  power, 
or  at  least  the  fly-wheel,  of  the  whole  machine,  the  soul 
and  spirit  of  the  entire  corps  of  teachers  (partictdarly  of  the 
"corpses"),  the  domineering  character  who  fashions  the 
instruction  of  his  subordinates  according  to  given  patterns. 
Individuality  is  in  the  most  perilous  situation  in  such  a 
"system." 

No  such  thing  is  seen  here  in  Germany.  A  most  refresh- 
ing variety  in  methods  is  noticeable  here,  partly  owing  to 
the  fact  that  every  teacher  has  professional  training,  and 
partly  owing  to  the  absence  of  local  supervision.  This  gives 
the  teachers  who  are  judged  by  their  merits  wide  elbow- 
room.  It  is  true,  however,  that  more  experimenting  is  go- 
ing on  here,  and  perhaps  more  waste  of  time  and  energy 
upon  fruitless  attempts ;  but  I  can  not  repress  my  astonish- 
ment at  the  solid  results  this  great  liberty  of  action  has. 
The  German  school  everywhere  has  at  least  one  class-room 
in  which  an  experimental  station  is  established,  where  new 
ideas  are  nursed  into  full  bloom.  Germany  has  been  from 
time  immemorial  a  mine  of  information  on  subjects  of  edu- 
cational theory  and  practice — a  mine  which  to  me  apjjears 
inexhaustible. 

My  note-book  is  full  of  sketches  and  memoranda,  and  I 


102  CREFELD  (RHENISH   PEUSSIA). 

can  scarcely  find  time  enough  to  work  them  out  and  make 
them  presentable.  How  it  would  cure  a  stiff-necked  con- 
servative American  schoolmaster  who  believes  in  "  keeping 
school,  hearing  recitation,  setting  tasks,  assigning  lessons," 
to  come  to  these  schools  and  study  them  as  minutely  as  they 
deserve  it  I    But,  then,  they  are  not  English,  you  know. 

4.  French  Pupils  in  German  Schools. 

Despite  the  bitter  hatred  Frenchmen  entertain  against 
Germany,  they  are  fully  alive  to  the  superiority  of  the  Ger- 
man schools  and  try  to  profit  by  them.  It  is  now  nearly 
ten  years  since  the  French  national  school  authorities  re- 
solved upon  a  direct  acknowledgment  of  that  superiority  by 
sending  annually  several  graduates  of  French  high-schools 
to  attend  the  last  two  years  of  the  course  in  German  high- 
schools.  No  indifferent  material  is  sent,  to  be  sure,  biit  only 
boys  who  have  won  the  first  prizes.  As  I  have  stated  else- 
where (in  the  article,  "  A  Distinction  with  a  Big  Difference  "), 
the  German  secondary  schools  are  well  adapted  to  talented 
pupils,  while  weaker  ones  are  weeded  out.  These  French 
boys,  then,  coming  as  they  do  like  "  picked  nines,"  are  not 
objected  to  by  German  school  authorities.  They  say  there  is 
no  reason  whatever  to  refuse  them  admittance,  inasmuch  as 
they  conduct  themselves  properly,  and  usually  are  a  credit 
to  the  schools  they  attend. 

These  boys  are  directed  to  stay  a  half-year  or  a  year  at 
one  school  and  then  go  to  another.  They  are  not  allowed  to 
stay  two  full  years  in  one  town,  lest  they  might  enter  into 
ties  too  close  to  suit  the  French  Government.  They  are  di- 
rected to  take  board  and  lodging  in  private  families,  and  to 
live  exactly  as  the  pupils  of  German  gymnasiums  do.  The 
Government  pays  all  expenses  during  their  stay  in  Germany. 
At  the  close  of  each  year  the  students  are  required  to  send  in 
a  report  of  what  they  experienced  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  utilized  their  time.  Of  course,  the  frequent 
changes  of  schools  and  place  of  habitation  are  inconvenient, 
but  they  enable  the  young  men  to  see  a  good  deal  of  that 


FRENCH  PUPILS  IN  GERMAN  SCHOOLS.  103 

country  which  ignorant  Frenchmen  before  1870  thought 
lay  near  the  north  pole  ! 

I  had  opportunities  to  leam  something  of  the  contents  of 
the  reports  sent  home  to  the  Minister  of  Instruction,  and  must 
confess  that  they  are  mostly  true  to  life  and  tally  with  my 
own  observations.  Most  of  the  young  men  are  very  much 
pleased  with  the  reception  they  find  among  the  people,  the 
teachers,  and  fellow-pupils.  They  praise  the  delicacy  and 
tact  of  their  German  hosts,  a  fact  which  the  wounded  spirit 
of  Frenchmen  is  apt  to  appreciate.  Some  admit  tliat  the 
senseless  agitation  in  France  concerning  "  revenge  for  1870  " 
makes  their  stay  in  certain  places  unendurable.  All,  how- 
ever, are  loud  in  praising  the  instruction  they  get  in  school. 

They  are  unanimous  in  saying  that  the  German  high- 
schools  are  far  superior  to  the  French  lycees.  Especially  in 
mathematics,  they  think,  the  German  schools  prove  supe- 
rior. The  way  the  students  are  made  to  work  out  problems 
in  geometry,  trigonometry,  oral  arithmetic,  etc.,  the  self- 
activity  to  which  the  pupils  are  led,  and  the  independence 
and  self-dependence  in  thinking,  are  commended.  Instruc- 
tion in  the  sciences  also  is  thought  superior  to  that  in 
Fi"ance.  Particularly  enthusiastic  are  the  reports  about 
gymnastic  drill.  This  is  not  astonishing  if  we  consider  that 
the  indulgent  French  youth  is  not  drilled  much  at  home  in 
bodily  exercises.  An  equal  share  of  praise  is  given  to  the 
teaching  of  music.  In  referring  to  this  the  young  French- 
men speak  with  animation  of  the  German  songs,  which  they 
consider  very  melodious. 

As  far  as  instruction  is  concerned  they  have  but  one 
opinion ;  but  they  do  not  like  the  rigid  discipline  exercised 
in  German  high-schools.  Why,  they  are  not  even  permit- 
ted to  smoke,  not  even  in  the  sanctum  sanctorum  of  their 
own  bedrooms!  The  slightest  deviation  from  the  straight 
road  of  virtue  is  punished  severely.  They  are  "  not  treated 
as  gentlemen,"  but  "  as  boys,"  are  obliged  to  doflP  their  hats 
when  they  pass  a  teacher,  and  are  generally  treated  as  un- 
ripe youths.    Though  I  can  not  myself  like  the  rough  treat- 


lOtt  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

ment  I  noticed  here  and  there,  I  must  admit  that  the  German 
teachers  are  consistent  in  regarding  no  school-boy  a  gentle- 
man. However  pretentious  he  may  be,  he  is  a  minor,  and  as 
such  can  not  lay  claim  to  the  dignities  of  a  full-grown  man. 
Of  course,  I  full  well  understand  that  in  a  republic  this  is 
considered  heresy ;  but  we  may  admit  the  consistency  prac- 
ticed in  German  schools  where  the  treatment  of  pupils  is  a 
reflection  of  the  mode  of  government,  monarchical  govern- 
ment, in  which  respect  for  authority  is  "learned  by  doing." 
In  one  particular  the  German  high-schools  find  con- 
demnation on  the  part  of  these  French  students.  They  say 
Germans  pay  less  attention  to  show — that  is,  to  legitimate 
show.  For  instance,  they  care  naught  for  rhetorical  polish, 
and  their  recitations  are  considered  good  when  the  essential 
facts  are  brought  out  correctly.  The  garment  of  thought  is 
neglected.  Their  teaching  of  drawing  also  is  less  refined 
than  that  in  France.  This  may  be  true  in  the  high-schools, 
but  I  can  testify  to  a  wonderful  improvement  in  drawing  in 
the  lower  schools  which  has  not  reached  the  upper  grades 
as  yet.  I  trust,  though,  that  in  ten  years  that  branch  of  the 
curriculum  will  be  fully  up  to  the  French  standard. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

cologne  {rhenish  prussia). 
1.  Conservatism  and  Liberalism. 

A  SPECIAL  and  very  politely  worded  invitation  from  the 
school  authorities  of  Cologne  led  me  once  more  to  this 
famous  city.  Things  worth  reporting,  though  not  in  every 
case  worth  imitating,  are  going  on  here  in  the  shadow  of 
the  finest  cathedral  in  the  world,  a  marvel  of  the  middle 
ages  which  our  nineteenth  century  was  destined  to  com- 
plete.   In  order  to  fully  comprehend  what  I  shall  say  about 


CONSERVATISM  AND  LIBERALISM.  105 

the  schools  here,  I  miist  ask  my  patient  readers  to  bear  cer- 
tain things  in  mind. 

Consider,  first,  that  this  city  has  a  past  of  nearly  two 
thousand  years,  having  been  a  German  settlement  before 
the  Romans  fortified  the  place  in  59  B.  c.  Its  name  is  a 
corruption  of  "  Colonia  Agrippina,"  as  it  was  called  by  the 
Romans  afterward  in  honor  of  the  Empress  Agrippina.  In 
a  city  of  that  age  there  is  naturally  a  dense  mist  of  historical 
reminiscences  to  overcome.  At  every  movement  forward  a 
huge  mass  of  prejudices  that  have  their  roots  in  time-hon- 
ored customs  and  laws  must  be  removed.  Effecting  reforms 
here  is  very  much  more  difiicult  than  in  American  and  even 
in  other  German  cities.  Goethe's  words,  "  Es  erben  sich 
Gesetz  und  Rechte  wie  eine  ewige  Krankheit  fort,"  are  ap- 
plicable here  if  anywhere. 

Bear  in  mind  also  that  recently  the  ancient  fortress  has 
been  widened,  that  the  old  walls  are  torn  down  and  new 
fortifications  are  erected  a  mile  or  more  farther  out,  that  all 
this  new  space  is  laid  out  according  to  the  latest  most  ap- 
proved styles  of  Euroi)ean  city  building  and  exquisite  archi- 
tecture. Consider  the  great  influx  of  new  elements  to  the 
community  in  consequence  of  this  opening  and  the  applica- 
tion of  modem  ideas  which  clash  with  ancient  creeds  and 
meek  habits. 

We  have  in  all  Amei'ica  no  such  interesting  picture  of 
conflict  between  conservatism  and  liberalism,  no  such  tur- 
moil of  ancient  and  modern  ideas,  no  such  refreshing  results 
of  modern  exertion  side  by  side  with  moss-grown,  decaying 
institutions.  Though  Cologne  is  the  most  devoutly  Catholic 
town  in  Europe,  and  people  here  are  honestly  trying  to  be 
more  Catholic  than  the  Pope  in  Rome,  yet  they  are  the  most 
light-hearted  of  all  the  gay  Rhinelanders. 

To  live  here  a  week  with  eyes  wide  open,  to  be  conducted 
through  schools  of  varied  types  and  characters,  through 
museums,  galleries,  old  churches,  new  fortifications,  dilapi- 
dated city  gates,  crooked  lanes  of  houses  built  a  thousand 
years  ago,  and  hotels  and  residences  of  startling  magnifi- 


106  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

cence,  new  stores  and  factories  only  finished  yesterday, 
through  ancient  crypts  and  modern  zoological  and  botan- 
ical gardens,  from  statues  of  Bismarck  and  Moltke  of  bronze 
to  those  of  questionable  saints  in  crumbling  sandstone — is 
like  going  through  wonderland,  or,  to  speak  in  terms  of  a 
modern  writer,  is  a  liberal  education. 

I  am  painfully  aware  that  this  is  not  a  "  practical  "  dis- 
course. The  American  average  teacher  is  supremely  indif- 
ferent to  impressions,  and  expects  in  a  book  like  this  ideas, 
suggestions,  sketches,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  to  be  immediately 
applicable  in  the  school-room.  I  grieve  over  it,  for  I  am  sure 
I  might  furnish  some  readable  matter ;  but  I  must  come  to 
the  point.  What  I  said  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  was 
necessary  to  set  in  relief  what  I  shall  say  about  the  schools  of 
Cologne. 

2.  Intermediate  Schools. 

The  School  Inspector  of  Cologne,  Dr.  Brandenberg,  a 
most  accomplished  gentleman  and  an  energetic  leader,  is  en- 
gaged at  present  in  reforming  the  organization  of  the  schools. 
There  are  a  number  of  schools  here  called  "  poor  or  free 
schools,"  being  intended  for  and  frequented  by  the  poor; 
another  number  called  "  district  schools,"  intended  for  the 
children  of  the  middle  class  who  can  pay  tuition  fees.  Now 
here  in  the  stronghold  of  moss-backed  conservatism  the  idea 
has  gained  strength  that  all  the  schools  below  the  high- 
schools  should  be  made  "  common  schools "  ;  that  tuition 
fees  should  be  done  away  with ;  that  the  upper  grades  of  an 
eight  years'  course  should  be  made  into  what  is  known  in 
America  under  the  captivating  but  misleading  name  "  gram- 
mar-schools." 

Middle  or  intermediate  schools  is  the  name  given  them 
here.  Among  the  cities  I  have  seen  so  far,  only  Hamburg, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  Duisburg,  have  intermediate 
schools.  That  Cologne  should  take  such  a  step  from  which 
so  liberal-minded  a  city  as  Diisseldorf  shrinks  timidly  is  a 
proof  of  the  go-aheadness  of  the  citizens  of  Cologne.    It  re- 


PREPARATORY  SCHOOL  FOR  TEACHERS.     107 

minds  me  of  the  man  who  hei-oically  pulled  himself  out  of 
the  mire  by  his  own  cue. 

3.  Preparatory  School  for  Teachers. 

Another  praiseworthy  step,  and,  I  believe,  one  worthy  of 
imitation,  is  the  establishment  of  a  school  for  boys  called 
preparatory  school.  Boys  and  young  men  who  intend  to 
become  teachers  and  to  enter  one  of  the  royal  normal  schools 
(of  which  there  are  more  than  a  dozen  in  the  province)  are 
invited  to  go  through  a  regular  course  of  training  in  this 
school.  This  course  lasts  three  or  foxxr  years.  The  students 
here  get  thorough  academic  instruction,  and  are  trained  in 
music,  drawing,  manual  occupations,  and  gymnastics.  Peda- 
gogics and  didactics  are  not  taught.  These  branches  are  left 
to  the  normal  school  with  its  three  years'  course  and  its 
practice  department. 

I  was  curious  to  see  the  working  of  this  preparatory 
school,  and  was  much  pleased  to  meet  there  the  principal  of 
one  of  the  royal  normal  schools  who  had  come  on  his  tour 
of  inspection  to  examine  the  students.  There  was  a  great 
diversity  in  age  and  accomplishments  among  the  boys,  some 
having  come  from  higher  schools,  others  from  the  people's 
school ;  some  being  fifteen,  others  eighteen  years  of  age. 

I  heard  a  music-lesson,  one  in  the  theory  of  music,  and 
practice  on  the  viol  La.  This  instruction  was  very  success- 
ful, for  the  solos  and  quartets  which  these  boys  played  were 
very  acceptable  performances.  No  ancient  or  foreign  lan- 
guage is  taught  in  either  preparatory  or  normal  school, 
though  the  teachers  admit  thai  it  would  have  a  good  effect 
upon  the  mother-tongue  if  the  students  could  take  up  the 
study  of  a  foreign  language  for  comparison's  sake,  if  for  no 
other  purpose. 

A  geography-lesson  I  heard  was  another  indication  of  the 
thorough  preparation  the  boys  get  here.  All  the  matter 
given  was  offered  in  a  style  and  in  doses  which  would 
indicate  how  such  matters  might  be  presented  to  other  pu- 
pUs.    Though  no  pedagogical  principles  were  preached,  they 


108  COLOGNE  (RHENISn   PRUSSIA). 

were  practiced.  Then  followed  a  grammar-lesson  which, 
would  have  pleased  even  an  Alexander  Bain.  I  intend  to 
sketch  this  lesson  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  Now,  think  that 
after  the  students  have  finished  this  course  they  are  expected 
to  go  through  a  regular  course  of  three  years  in  a  normal 
school !    No  wonder  Prussia  has  good  teachers ! 

The  principal  of  the  normal  school  who  had  come  to  in- 
spect the  institution  was  a  rather  irritable  man,  who  after 
the  boys  were  dismissed  criticised  the  teachers  severely ;  in- 
deed, as  I  thought,  much  too  severely,  harping  on  trifles  and 
overlooking  decided  merits.  But  so  well  were  the  teachers 
disciplined  by  having  served  in  the  army,  that  they  did  not 
change  a  muscle  in  their  faces  while  this  tirade  against 
trifles  was  poured  over  them.  No  American  teacher  would 
have  stood  this  unjust  criticism  without  at  least  claiming 
'■"audi  alteram  partem.''''  I  could  not  help  feeling  sym- 
pathy for  one  of  the  teachers,  who  evidently  felt  the  gross, 
injustice  of  being  thus  treated  in  the  presence  of  a  guest.  I 
turned  away. 

4.  Female  Teachers'  Sejunary. 

In  another  direction  Cologne  offers  an  example  worthy 
of  imitation.  If  I  am  informed  correctly,  royal  normal 
schools  in  Prussia  do  not  admit  women.  Young  ladies  who 
desire  to  become  teachers  must  get  their  professional  educa- 
tion in  a  private  way  as  well  as  they  can  afford;  but  the 
Government  examines  them  "just  the  same" — that  is,  sub- 
jects them  to  the  same  rigid  and  searching  examinations  as 
the  students  of  the  normal  schools.  This,  it  seems  to  me,  is 
a  glaring  injustice  perpetrated  by  the  state.  The  city  of 
Cologne  is  wiser  than  the  state.  It  has  established  a  normal 
school  of  its  own  for  young  ladies.  The  school  has  a  course 
of  four  years,  and  very  creditable  work  is  done  there,  as  I 
hope  to  show  in  my  next  letter. 

This  school  is  conducted  by  the  school  inspector  (or  su- 
perintendent) himself,  who  spends  an  hour  a  day  teaching 
psychology,  logic,  and  history  of  education.     The  first  two 


FEMALE  TEACHERS'  SEMINARY.  109 

years  are  entirely  given  to  academic  studies ;  the  third  is  de- 
voted to  theory  and  practice  as  well  as  academic  studies ;  the 
fourth  year  is  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  psychology  and 
experimeiital  teaching.  I  listened  to  a  lesson  in  history 
given  by  a  young  lady  to  a  fourth-grade  class  of  girls  (the  A 
Primary).  Don't  shake  your  head,  fair  reader;  they  begin 
history  early  in  German  schools. 

Queen  Louisa,  of  Prussia,  the  mother  of  Emperor  Will- 
iam, was  the  subject.  The  following  was  the  rather  limited 
amount  of  historical  facts  offered  and  learned,  but  they  were 
learned  well :  *'  Our  present  emperor  and  King  of  Prussia 
was  born  in  the  same  year  in  which  his  father  became  king. 
The  father's  name  was  Frederick  William  III.  The  mother's 
name  was  Louisa.  She  was  and  is  still  considered  the  most 
beautiful  queen  who  ever  graced  a  throne.  She  was  very 
kind  and  lovable,  disliked  pompous  court  festivals,  and  de- 
voted her  time  to  her  family.  Queen  Louisa  was  passion- 
ately fond  of  her  sons,  the  elder  of  which  was  Frederick 
William,  who  afterward  became  King  of  Prussia  and  died 
in  1861.  The  second  son  was  William,  who  followed  his 
brother  on  the  throne.  When  the  boys  were  still  young 
the  queen  wrote  to  her  father  one  day,  '  If  I  am  not  very 
much  mistaken,  William  will  be  like  his  father,  simple  in 
his  habits,  true,  faithful,  straightforward,  and  sensible.'  In- 
deed, if  ever  a  mother  prophesied  right,  it  was  Louisa  when 
she  Avrote  these  words.  When  Prussia  broke  down  under 
the  strokes  of  Napoleon,  Louisa  had  to  flee  to  the  extreme 
eastern  end  of  the  kingdom.  She  comforted  her  family, 
completed  the  education  of  her  two  elder  sons,  and  died  of  a 
broken  heart.  Her  husband  redeemed  the  old  glory  of  his 
kingdom  when  he  entered  Paris  at  the  head  of  his  victorious 
army  side  by  side  with  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria, 
and  her  beloved  son  William  defeated  another  Napoleon 
even  more  disastrously  than  his  father  had  done.  The 
Prussian  people  can  never  forget  that  their  beautiful  Queen 
Louisa  had  been  personally  insulted  by  Napoleon  I." 

I  give  these  results  only.     They  may  sound  rather  like 


110  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

Byzantinism  in  America;  but  let  us  be  just  and  acknowl- 
edge that  a  biography  of  Martha  Washington  would  be 
flavored  similarly  in  our  schools.  "  To  comprehend  every- 
thing means  to  pardon  everything."  The  mode  of  pre- 
senting this  historical  matter  was  crude ;  but  the  young  lady 
showed  that  she  knew  the  principles  of  method,  and  a 
teacher  who  knows  them  is  sure  to  gain  skill. 

I  also  heard  lessons  given  by  the  professors  in  mathe- 
matical geography.  Never  did  I  enjoy  as  keen  a  logical 
train  of  thoughts  in  a  girls'  school  as  was  deduced  here; 
never  in  a  college  did  I  observe  better  results,  or  greater  dili- 
gence either.  The  most  delightful  thing  I  saw  here  was  the 
course  of  instruction  these  young  ladies  get  in  industrial  oc- 
cupation, such  as  drawing,  knitting,  crocheting,  embroider- 
ing, sewing,  mending,  and  patching.  I  shall  make  that  the 
subject  of  a  special  chapter. 

A  teachers'  library  of  several  thousand  professional 
books  on  general  pedagogics,  on  psychology,  on  didactics,  on 
methods,  on  history  of  education,  on  special  branches  of 
study,  etc.,  graces  this  seminary.  The  library  is  open  to 
all  the  teachers  of  the  city,  and  is  used  frequently.  One 
spacious  room  is  filled  with  physical,  chemical,  anatomical, 
geometrical,  etc  ,  apparatus  and  preparations,  and  all  were 
in  exquisite  order,  though  they  are  used  every  day. 

5.  Special  Instruction  to  Teachers. 

One  would  think  that  teachers  who  have  enjoyed  so 
thorough  a  professional  preparation  as  I  indicated  on  page 
37,  and  who  have  passed  all  the  severe  examinations  pre- 
scribed and  conducted  by  the  Grovernment,  would  be  left 
alone  to  secure  their  own  success  in  the  class-room  ;  but 
far  from  it.  By  governmental  decree  the  course  in  draw- 
ing had  been  changed  recently,  prescribing  that  ornamental 
drawing  should  be  brought  into  close  connection  with  fe- 
male home  industry.  Forthwith  the  women  teachers  were 
called  together  to  spend  an  evening  twice  a  week  in  going 
through  a  special  course  in  ornamental  drawing.    It  is  true 


SPECIAL  INSTRUCTION  TO  TEACHERS.  m 

this  course  is  free  of  charge ;  but  think  of  the  hardship  of 
coming  from  their  distant  homes  after  dark  to  attend  les- 
sons, and  late,  at  nine  o'clock,  go  home  perhaps  unattended ! 
This  course  is  to  last  all  through  the  winter. 

Another  governmental  order  had  come  making  gymnas- 
tics an  obligatoiy  exercise  in  a  certain  grade  of  schools 
where  it  had  not  been  heretofore.  Some  of  the  old  teachers 
were  not  prepared  to  conduct  these  exercises.  Forthwith 
the  city  provided  for  a  special  course  in  gymnastics  under 
the  direction  of  the  inspector  of  gymnastics ;  and  the  aston- 
ishing fact  is  that  these  teachers  come  and  spend  their  even- 
ings for  several  months  to  learn  exercises  on  the  horizontal 
bars,  the  rope,  the  parallel  bars,  the  leap-rope,  the  iron  rod, 
the  dumb-bells,  etc.  Take  it  all  in  all,  there  is  a  devotion  to 
professional  duty  here  in  this  modern  German  Empire  which 
it  is  gratifying  to  behold. 

When,  in  the  presence  of  the  school  inspector,  I  ex- 
pressed my  astonishment  at  the  munificence  the  city  author- 
ities show  in  favor  of  professional  training,  he  said:  "Yes, 
sir,  these  things  may  seem  strange  in  the  shadow  of  those 
ancient  churches  ;  but  don't  forget  that  that  wonderful 
cathedral  lay  unfinished  for  centuries  until  our  energetic 
nineteenth  century  took  the  matter  in  hand  and  finished  it. 
It  is  so  in  everything.  Side  by  side  with  the  most  intoler- 
able reactionary  endeavors  our  city  exhibits  the  truly  heroic 
spirit  of  the  modern  age.  Every  street  here  with  its  modern 
palaces  and  old  crumbling  houses  is  an  example  of  the  dual- 
ism of  Cologne's  institutions.  God  be  devoutly  thanked  for 
it  that  sound  modern  doctrines  take  the  upper  hand  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  schools.  The  re-establishment  of 
the  German  Empire  has  had  a  rejuvenating  effect  upon 
many  institutions,  but  none  has  been  more  benefited  by  it 
than  the  school.  Our  horizon  is  wider,  our  former  dream- 
life  has  taken  a  practical  turn,  and,  take  it  all  in  all,  ive  now 
live  a  life  worth  living. " 


112 


COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


6.  Two  Conveniences. 

Here  in  Cologne  I  find  in  general  use  a  kind  of  wooden 
blackboard  of  excellent  finish  which  consists  of  two  leaves 
hanging  on  hinges.  They  can  be  closed  like  the  leaves  of  a 
book.  If  closed,  the  board  presents  only  one  side ;  but  the 
two  (or  three)  leaves  can  be  turned  easily,  so  that  all  four 
(or  six)  sides  may  be  used.  If  the  teacher  wishes  to  preserve 
the  sketch  of  a  lesson  or  illustrations,  etc.,  he  can  do  so  by 
turning  the  "leaf."     For  the  conven- 

«ience  of  smaller  pupils  the  board  (or 


r-^^H^ 


/nu/ 


Figs.  95,  96. 


Figs.  97,  98. 


into  a  groove  and  held  by  an  iron  pin.  This  contrivance 
can  be  made  cheaply,  and  its  great  practicability  led  me  to 
sketch  it  (Figs.  95,  96). 

Another  convenient  apparatus  is  a  map-stand  which  can 
serve  several  purposes.  The  upper  rod  of  a  wall  map  is 
laid  into  the  trough  marked  a,  then  a  spring  in  the  back  is 
touched  and  the  rod  marked  6  is  lowered  and  presses  on  the 
map-rod,  thus  holding  the  map  securely.     The  map  may  be 


A  LESSON   IN  PHYSICS.  113 

raised  to  any  height  one  wishes,  and  can  be  placed  so  as  to 
avoid  a  glare  from  direct  sunlight.  Reading,  music,  and 
number  charts,  copies  for  drawing,  etc.,  can  be  suspended 
by  the  hook  without  further  adjustment.  A  music-holder 
may  be  attached  to  the  stand  also.  The  whole  is  made  of 
rod  steel,  and  is  light  enough  to  transport  it  easily.  I  trust 
some  enterprising  American  firm  will  profit  by  the  sugges- 
tion this  sketch  offers  (Figs.  97,  98). 

7.  A  Lesson  in  Physics. 

It  was  a  grade  corresponding  to  our  sixth  school  year,  or 
second  year  Grammar,  where  I  listened  to  an  interesting  les- 
son in  physics.  Optics  was  the  subject.  Of  course,  it  w^ould 
be  carrying  owls  to  Athens  to  repeat  the  lesson  in  a  book 
published  in  America,  a  country  where  natural  philosophy 
is  taught  so  well ;  only  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  in  a  class  of  the  sixth  school  year,  not  a  high- 
school,  where  I  heard  the  lesson. 

As  we  can  easily  imagine,  the  teacher  proceeded  by 
means  of  objective  teaching  and  used  experiments  and  illus- 
trations which  lay  near  at  hand ;  as,  for  instance,  when  he 
brought  up  the  question  why  the  sky  was  blue,  he  did  not, 
as  many  a  better  teacher  might  have  done,  explain  this  by 
referring  to  facts  of  Avhich  it  was  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
they  were  known ;  but,  knowing  the  kind  of  pupils  he  had 
to  deal  with,  he  held  up  a  clear  pane  of  glass  and  placed  it 
against  the  window.  Tlien  he  added  several  more  panes,  till 
about  a  dozen  of  them  stood  upon  edge,  one  in  front  of 
another.  Now  he  gave  the  pupils  time  to  deduce  the  truth 
from  the  fact  before  their  eyes.  It  was  literally  impossible 
to  see  through  these  twelve  or  more  panes  of  glass.  From 
that  fact  to  the  other,  namely,  the  want  of  transparency  of 
the  great  cloak  of  atmosphere  surrounding  the  earth,  was 
easy.  The  color  in  the  glass  led  them  on  to  find  the  cause  of 
the  color  of  the  sky.  It  was  a  fine  way  of  teaching,  making 
knowledge  experience,  to  be  sure. 

Another  very  taking  illustration  was  suggested  by  the 


114  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

question  how  the  color  of  the  evening  red  was  produced. 
The  room  was  darkened,  a  light  and  the  janitor's  steaming 
tea-kettle  were  brought  in,  and  again  the  boys  saw  the  truth, 
which  was  crude  as  yet  and  had  to  be  retined  by  means  of 
leading  questions  and  much  critical  analysis ;  but  the  begin- 
ning of  the  truth  had  been  discovered  without  telling  it  to  or 
imposing  it  upon  the  pupils.  When  the  teacher  asked  how 
it  came  that  we  saw  the  morning  red  much  less  frequently 
than  the  evening  red,  his  face  did  not  betray  the  fun ;  but 
the  boys  inferred  from  his  question  that  the  morning  red 
occurred  less  frequently  than  the  evening  red.  It  was  a 
poser.  At  last  a  small  boy,  who  nmst  have  noticed  my 
smile,  suggested  that  the  reason  was  simply  because  we  lay  in 
bed  too  late  to  notice  it.     What  a  revelation  and  what  fun ! 

Let  me  add  briefly  but  emphatically  that  no  text-book 
was  used,  neither  had  the  teacher  one  in  his  hand,  nor  were 
the  pupils  required  to  purchase  any.  When  the  lesson  was 
closed,  the  home  task  was  given  out  to  write  a  composition 
on  what  they  had  just  heard  and  learned.  I  venture  to  be- 
lieve that  the  boys  had  something  to  say. 

8,  A  Lesson  in  Grammar. 

The  lesson  in  grammar  which  I  promised  to  sketch  (see 
page  108)  treated  syntax  and  as  much  of  etymology  as  could 
be  touched  conveniently  without  leading  the  pupils  astray.- 
A  simple  sentence  was  taken,  such  as  '^Father  called." 
First  the  essential  elements  of  the  sentence,  subject,  and 
predicate  were  mentioned. 

Teacher.  "  What  question  does  father  answer  to  ? " 
Answer.  "  To  the  question.  Who  called  ? " 
Teacher.  "  If  I  say  father  came,  would  the  question  be 
the  same  ? " 

Answer.  "  No,  sir;  it  would  be,  Who  came  ?  " 
Teacher.  "  Is  not  the  interrogative,  the  questioning  word 
who,  the  same  in  both  questions  ? " 

Answer.  "  Yes,  and  that  word  is  always  answered  by  the 
subject  ? " 


A   LESSON   IN   GRAMMAR.  115 

Teacher.  "  We  will  note  this  in  the  comer  of  our  black- 
board thus :  Subject  answers  to  the  question  who  ?  But  is 
that  the  only  question  the  subject  may  answer  ? " 

Ansiver.  '*  If  the  subject  is  an  animal  or  inanimate  thing', 
we  can  not  ask  who  does  this  or  that,  but  must  say  what 
does  ?  As,  for  instance,  the  water  bubbles.  What  bubbles  ? 
We  can  therefore  add  the  word  what  to  the  rule,  so  that  it 
reads.  Subject  answers  to  the  questions  Who  or  What  ? " 
(Teacher  does  so.) 

Teacher.  "  Why  do  you  say  who  or  what  ?  Why  not 
who  and  what  ? " 

Answer.  "  Because  it  can  not  do  both  ;  it  can  only  do 
one  of  the  two." 

Teacher.  "Are  there  any  other  questions  to  which  the 
subject  of  a  sentence  may  answer  ?  Let  us  see.  Open  your 
readers  on  page  17.     Read,  John." 

John  reads :  "  The  sun  shines.  Sun,  the  subject,  answers 
to  ivhat  shines  ? " 

Fred  reads:  "The  physician  hurried  to  the  sx)ot.  Hei*e 
the  subject  answers  to  the  question  Who  ?  " 

Other  sentences  are  looked  up.  All  the  pupils  agree  that 
who  and  what  are  the  only  questions  to  which  a  subject  may 
answer. 

Teacher.  "  Then  we  have  found  a  means  by  which  we 
are  able  to  detect  the  subject  of  any  sentence." 

Pupils  are  then  led  to  state  that  the  nominative  case  is 
the  Who  or  What  case,  and  that  the  subject  is  invariably  in 
that  case.     A  note  is  made  of  the  fact. 

Teacher.  "  To  what  question  does  the  predicate  give  an 
answer  ? " 

Anstver.  "  It  answers  to  the  question, What  did  father  do  ?" 

Teacher  notes  in  the  comer  of  the  board :  "  Predicate  an- 
swers to  What  does  or  did  do  f  Are  there  any  other  ques- 
tions to  which  a  predicate  may  give  answer  ? " 

Answer,  after  a  few  leading  questions:  "Yes,  it  may  an- 
swer to  the  question  What  is  f  as  for  instance  in  this  sen- 
tence: My  father  is  a  carpenter." 


116  COLOGNE   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

Teacher.  "  Well,  we  will  make  a  note  of  that,  too.  Any 
other  question." 

Answer^  after  some  searching  :  "  Yes,  it  may  answer  to 
How  is  f  as  for  instance  in  the  sentences,  My  father  is  well ; 
the  violet  is  fragrant;  the  door  is  open." 

Teacher.  "  To  prevent  loss  of  time  by  useless  searching, 
let  me  say  that  these  three  questions — (1)  What  does,  (2) 
What  is,  and  (3)  How  is  ? — are  the  only  ones  a  predicate  can 
answer.  Such  questions  as,  What  did,  or  has  done,  or  will 
do,  etc.,  are  only  variations  of  what  does,  being  merely 
changes  in  the  tense  or  mood  of  the  verb." 

Pupil.  "  Do  I  understand  you  to  mean  that  the  question 
What  does  ?  is  always  answered  by  a  predicate  consisting  of 
a  verb  ? " 

Teacher.  "  Yes,  my  boy,  I  meant  to  come  to  that.  Now, 
having  found  that  much  yourself,  tell  me  of  what  the  pred- 
icate must  consist,  if  it  answers  to  What  is,  and  to  How  is  ? " 

Answer.  "A  noun  and  an  adjective." 

Teacher.  "  In  what  case  must  the  predicate  noun  be  ?" 

Answer.  "In  the  nominative,  because  it  answers  to  what  ?" 

Teacher.  "  Tlien  we  have  a  new  rule.     What  is  it  ? " 

Ansiver.  "  That  the  predicate  noun,  like  the  subject  npun, 
IS  in  the  nominative  case."    This  is  verified  by  examples. 

Teacher.  "  Change  the  sentence.  The  emperor  is  William, 
so  that  the  predicate  becomes  the  subject,  thus,  William  is 
the  emperor;  are  the  cases  the  same  as  before  ?  " 

Answer.  "Indeed,  they  are."  Several  other  sentences 
are  thus  twisted,  and  the  rule  is  confirmed  and  noted  down. 

Teacher.  "  Let  us  see:  some  one  said  that  the  predicate  is 
an  adjective  when  it  answers  to  How  is  ?  Is  blue  an  adjec- 
tive ? " 

Answer.  "Yes,  sir." 

Teacher.  "  Then  the  rule,  I  am  afraid,  does  not  hold 
good.  I  may  say.  My  favorite  color  is  blue.  Blue  here  an- 
swers to  What,  not  to  How." 

Ans^ver.  "In  this  case  blue  is  not  an  adjective,  it  is  a 
noun." 


A    LESSON   IN   GRAMMAR.  117 

Pupil  adds  with  some  satisfaction  :  "  I  believe  you  may- 
leave  that  rule  as  it  is;  it  is  well  enough." 

Teacher^  laughing:  "  As  you  please.  Let  us  go  on.  Our 
original  sentence  may  be  enlarged  by  saying,  John's  father 
called,  or  my  father  called ;  what  addition  do  I  make  ? " 

Answer.  "You  state  TF/»ose  father  called." 

Teacher.  *'  Does  this  in  any  way  limit  or  modify  the  pred- 
icate ? " 

Answei'.  "  No,  it  modifies  the  subject  and  states  definitely 
whose  father  called." 

Leading  questions  reveal  the  truth  that  Johri's  and  my 
are  attributive  elements,  or,  briefly  stated,  attributes. 

Teacher.  "  Can  you  think  of  any  other  attributes  which 
are  not  nouns  like  Johns  in  the  possessive  case,  or  posses- 
sive pronouns*  like  my  f  " 

Answer.  "  We  might  further  limit  the  subject  by  saying. 
My  old  father  called.  Old  answers  to  the  question  What 
kind  of  f  " 

Teacher.  "  Find  the  attribute  in  this  sentence,  The  cathe- 
dral of  Cologne  took  six  hundred  years  to  build." 

Answer.  "  Of  Cologne  is  the  attribute.  It  answers  to  the 
question  Which  cathedral  ? " 

Teacher.  "  Then  we  will  note  down,  attributes  answer 
to  the  questions  Whose  f  What  kind  off  Which  f'  (The 
teacher  confided  to  me  afterward  that  in  the  next  course  he 
would  further  enlarge  this  topic  by  drawing  in  cases  of  ajn 
position.) 

Teacher.  "Now,  if  you  had  a  long  sentence,  such  as, 
'  Yesterday  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  sixty-ninth 
regiment  of  the  Prussian  army  marched  through  our  town 
with  waving  banner  and  a  brass  band,'  how  would  you  find 
out  the  subject,  predicate,  and  attributes  ? " 

Now  followed  an  application  of  the  tests  which  had  been 
learned.  Other  sentences  were  treated  likewise,  and  the  rule 
was  put  to  the  proof  in  many  ways. 

♦  My  readers  must  not  forget  that  this  was  a  Ics-soa  in  German  grammar 


nS  COLOGNE   (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

A  statement  was  formulated  which  fixed  the  fact  that  an 
attribute  answering  to  whose  ?  and  consisting  of  a  noun, 
must  be  in  the  genitive  case.  Also  another,  that  an  attribute 
may  consist  of  a  noun  in  the  dative  being  dependent  upon  a 
preposition  governing  tbat  case.  But  all  such  considera- 
tions must  be  left  out  here  in  view  of  the  fact  that  I  write 
for  people  who  speak  an  almost  grammarless  tongue,  accord- 
ing to  Superintendent  Sill.  I  will  do  justice  to  the  teacher 
by  saying  that  he  did  not  once  forget  his  end  in  view. 

Teacher.  "  Suppose,  now,  that  we  enlarge  our  sentence 
still  further,  so  that  it  reads,  '  John's  old  father  called  the 
dog.'    What  shall  we  call  this  new  element  ? " 

Now  followed  a  statement  as  to  the  questions  which  ob- 
jects may  answer  ;  in  what  case  they  are  found  ;  of  what 
words  they  may  consist.  My  readers  may  imagine,  with  the 
aid  of  the  foregoing,  how  this  part  of  the  lesson  was  con- 
ducted. 

Then  followed  a  similar  consideration  of  the  adverbial 
elements,  and  that  brought  the  lesson  to  a  close.  At  the  end 
of  the  lesson  the  blackboard  contained  these  notes,  which 
were  copied  by  the  boys : 

I.  Subject  answers  to  Who  or  What  ?  always  nominative. 

II.  Predicate  answers  What  does  f  What  is  ?  or  How  is  f 
if  a  noun — always  nominative. 

III.  Attribute  answers  to  Whose  f  What  kind  f  Which  f 
If  a  noun — possessive,  or  with  a  preposition  which  governs 
its  case. 

IV.  Object  answers  to  Whom  or  To  Whom  f  What  or  To 
What  f  In  answer  to  the  first — dative  ;  in  answer  to  the 
second,  accusative  case. 

V.  Adverbial  answers  to  [  (a)  Time  ]  :  When  f  Since 
When  f  and  How  long  f  It  states  present,  past,  or  future  of 
an  action.  [  (b)  Place]  :  Where  f  Whither  f  Whence  f  [  (c) 
Condition]  :  How  f  Degree,  intensity,  and  other  adverbials 
were  omitted  for  want  of  time.  [  (d)  Cause]  :  Why  f  What 
forf 

The  home  lesson  given  out  was  to  furnish  a  sentence  from 


GIRLS'  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION.  119 

the  history  or  reader  which  would  illustrate  these  rules.  For 
a  lesson  to  beginners  in  grammar  it  was  a  very  fruitful  les- 
son— indeed,  rather  too  fruitful,  as  I  suspect ;  that  is,  it  offered 
too  much  for  one  lesson.  "  Less  would  have  been  more,"  I 
believe.  Still,  I  must  say  I  enjoyed  it,  and  the  boys  did  so, 
too  :  that  was  obvious. 

9.  Girls'  Industrial  Education. 

I.  Every  city  I  have  visited  here  in  Germany,  has  its  own 
local  flavor,  its  own  peculiar  bias  caused  by  its  history.  A 
German  city  can  not  shake  itself  free  from  its  reminiscences 
and  strike  out  into  new  domains  of  human  exertion.  It  is 
commonly  thought  that  America  has  cause  for  congratula- 
tion because  it  has  no  ruins  and  no  history.  But  the  oppo- 
site idea  is  worth  defending.  The  inhabitant  of  Cologne,  for 
instance,  though  he  be  a  beggar,  resembles  the  descendant  of 
an  ancient  family,  while  the  most  respected  citizen  of  one  of 
the  Western  mushroom  cities  in  America  is  like  unto  the 
man  who  "  has  no  grandfather." 

While  thus  it  would  seem  as  though  I  envied  the  fate  of 
a  Neapolitan,  or  Cologne,  or  Parisian  beggar,  I  beg  to  state 
emphatically  that  for  myself  I  prefer  the  fate  of  that  highly 
respected  citizen  in  yonder  Western  mushroom  settlement, 
for  reasons  too  obvious  to  mention.  But  my  individual  predi- 
lection, and  your  fancy,  my  dear  reader,  are  not  questions 
to  be  considered  here.  I  mean  to  show  in  this  letter  that 
a  glorious  city  history  dating  back  through  the  middle 
ages,  and  farther  back  into  antiquity,  must  of  necessity  in- 
fluence school  legislation,  and  the  action  of  executive  officers 
and  teachers  of  such  a  city.  Even  if  it  be  desirable  to  free 
instruction  of  all  such  influence  (which  would  be  heresy), 
the  very  stones  here  in  Cologne  would  speak  out  and  protest. 

Imagine  yourself  back  in  the  middle  ages,  and  think  of 
the  exquisite  altar-covers,  embroidered  by  the  wives  and 
daughters  of  the  famous  citizens  of  Cologne.  Think  of  the 
splendid  garments  with  which  they  used  to  adorn  their  saints 
in  church  and  home.     Think  of  the  splendor  of  silken  gowns 


120  COLOGNE  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

of  brig-ht  colors  worn  during  the  middle  ages.  Think  of 
the  costly  points  and  laces  of  those  times,  and  of  the  knitted 
jackets  worn  by  the  men  uader  their  armor.  Think  of  the 
close  confinement  of  the  women  formerly,  and  their  endeav- 
ors to  beautify  and  adorn  homes  in  their  own  inimitable  way, 
and  then  bear  in  mind  that  these  ancient  customs  are  trace- 
able in  the  churches,  in  the  museums,  in  public  and  private 
houses  of  Cologne,  even  to  this  day. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  among  such  surroundings  female 
manual  occupations  are  considered  at  par  in  importance  with 
intellectual  training'.  And  though,  under  the  high  pressure 
of  our  "modem  age  of  ready-made  clothing,"  the  ideals, 
customs,  and  laws  of  Cologne  have  changed,  we  still  perceive 
their  influence.  There  is  a  causal  nexus  between  the  past 
and  the  present  which,  though  subtle  and  indefinable,  is 
none  the  less  strong  and  determinate. 

Thus  we  see  the  women  teachei-s  of  Cologne  teaching 
the  ^rls  knitting,  crocheting,  embroidery,  weaving,  sewing, 
lace-making,  mending,  and  patching  not  only  as  I  saw  it 
done  in  other  cities — that  is,  in  a  sort  of  practical  crazy -quilt 
fashion,  but  under  the  direct  influence  of  beautiful  models 
and  according  to  the  best  pedagogical  principles  and  meth- 
ods. With  mute  astonishment  I  followed  them  (teach- 
ers and  students  of  the  girls'  teachers'  seminary)  through 
their  "stores."  A  whole,  good-sized  room  was  filled  with 
things  finished  in  one  year's  course.  Every  object  was  neat- 
ly wrapped  and  labeled  with  the  pupil's  name,  and  the  dates 
at  which  it  was  begun  and  finished.  Everything'  was  scru- 
pulously clean.  This  exhibition  proved  the  admirable  me- 
thodical skill  of  the  teachers,  to  say  little,  and  the  pi-ofound 
wisdom  of  him  who  had  framed  the  course  so  as  to  bring 
this  department  to  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection. 

Although  I  can,  under  high  pressure  of  necessity,  sew  on 
buttons  which  will  stay  on,  and  mend  a  seam,  I  am  afraid  of 
betraying  a  woful  ignorance  with  woman's  accomplishments 
if  I  attempt  to  sketch  the  course  laid  down  and  carried  out. 
I  will  therefore  merely  say  tiiat  the  course  begins  with  knit- 


GIRLS'  INDUSTRIAL  EDDCATIOxV.  121 

ting  with  two  needles  a  broad  strap  about  a  foot  long.  On 
this  strap  are  taught  the  various  stitches — plain,  double,  re- 
versed, etc.  This  is  the  work  of  the  first  year's  course.  The 
course  begins  in  the  second  school  year  at  the  age  of  seven. 
It  ends  within  six  years  with  embroidery,  lace-making,  and 
sewing  shirts,  chemises,  and  artistic  bedclothing.  It  in- 
cludes a  complete  garnitvire  of  tidies,  embroidery  of  letters, 
point-lace-making,  and  thorough  instruction  in  cutting  out. 

While  the  course  is  inflexible  as  to  the  what  is  to  be 
done  and  as  to  the  number  of  pieces  required  to  be  finished, 
it  affordg  ample  elbow-room  for  the  employment  of  the  pu- 
pil's own  taste  and  ingenuity  in  designing.  I  was  deter- 
mined to  follow  the  saying  nil  admirari,  and  refrained 
from  praising  except  as  much  as  could  be  fittingly  expressed 
by  a  satisfied  grunt ;  but  when  I  came  to  the  mending  and 
patching  department  I  forgot  my  resolution.  That  loosened 
my  tongue.  Imagine,  my  fair  reader,  square  patches,  star- 
shaped  patches,  circular  patches,  laid  on  the  sleeve  of  a  shirt, 
patches  that  looked  as  handsome  as  though  they  were  not  to 
hide  a  defect,  to  wit,  a  vulgar  tear,  but  to  beautify  the  sleeve. 
A  tear  in  the  common  form  of  a  Roman  V  I  saw  mended 
with  such  exquisite  exactness,  by  following  the  woof  and 
web  of  the  linen,  that  I  could  not  help  expressing  my  deep- 
felt  gratification.  The  teachers  laughed  heartily  and  said : 
"  How  like  a  man !  Things  that  cost  a  hundred  times  more 
ingenuity  and  skill  than  that  leave  him  cool  as  a  cucumber, 
but  when  he  sees  this  patching  and  mending  he  breaks  loose 
in  high  praise." 

Well,  I  acknowledged  my  resolution  and  was  absolved. 
I  have  seen  many  beautiful  school  exhibitions,  but  none  that 
was  so  genuinely  true  an  expression  of  what  is  actually  done 
in  school  daily,  hourly.  Though  most  of  these  things  were 
very  beautiful,  there  was  nothing  there  among  all  those 
treasures  which  had  no  practical  bearing  and  could  not  be 
made  use  of  in  any  household,  rich  or  j)oor.  White  yarn  is 
used  in  knitting,  bright  colors  in  embroidering,  white  linen 
in  sewing,  so  as  to  accustom  the  pupils  to  the  most  scrupu- 


122  COLOGNE  (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

lous  cleanliness,  for  it  is  a  rule  that  no  finished  thing  is  to 
be  washed.     In  case  it  gets  soiled,  it  must  be  renewed. 

Side  by  side  with  each  year's  course  goes  a  course  in 
drawing  and  designing  of  patterns  which  lifts  this  instruc- 
tion from  a  mere  practical,  bread-and-butter  exercise  to  a 
study  of  no  mean  importance.  In  this  study  and  practice  of 
drawing  can  be  traced  with  infallible  certainty  the  models 
of  former  ages,  the  influence  of  beautiful  surroundings,  and 
of  a  culture  of  centuries.  This  secret  power  of  the  beautiful 
has  an  ennobling  influence,  one  that  can  not  be  overrated  in 
America  and  must  not  be  underrated. 

I  argued  with  the  teachers,  saying,  "  Many  of  these 
things  need  not  be  learned  in  our  age  of  machines  and 
ready-made  linen  and  clothing."  The  answer  came:  "Just 
as  much  as  the  artisan  stands  in  need  of  a  complete  knowl- 
edge and  a  great  deal  of  skill  to  understand  the  entire  bear- 
ings of  his  trade  will  it  benefit  our  girls  to  be  able  to  make 
all  the  things  you  see  here.  Think  of  the  many  thousands 
of  girls  who  make  a  living  by  working  for  shops.  Suppose 
them  to  be  trained  like  so  many  miserable,  discontented  ma- 
chine-hands in  shops  only  to  do  one  kind  of  thing,  to  learn 
one  knack  and  nothing  more.  If  they  are  dismissed,  they  are 
at  the  mercy  of  Heaven  knows  whom!  No,  sir;  knowledge, 
thorough,  systematic  knowledge,  and  high  artistic  skill  never 
lose  their  value,  be  the  conditions  of  life  whatever  they 
may." 

These  female  manual  occupations  are  taught  in  some 
schools  in  America,  but  nowhere  so  methodically  as  here. 
As  the  children  are  disciplined  by  class-work  in  writing  and 
reading,  etc.,  so  are  they  disciplined  by  knitting.  Whole 
classes  here  knit  as  the  teacher  beats  time.  This  exercise  is 
part  of  every  lesson  in  manual  occupation.  Many  a  lady 
teacher  of  manual  training  in  our  country  is  a  good  seam- 
stress, can  cut  out,  embroider,  crochet,  and  knit  well ;  but, 
having  no  professional  preparation  as  teacher,  she  works 
out  her  own  course  and  method,  visually  a  very  erratic  one, 
to  put  the  most  favorable  estimate  on  it. 


GIRr.S'  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION.  123 

But  see  these  women  teachers  at  Cologne  and  hear  them 
state  principles  for  every  action,  every  step  of  their  six  years' 
course,  quote  authorities,  reason  with  you  from  an  unassail- 
able vantage-ground  of  pedagogical  authorities,  with  clear 
insight  into  the  conditions  of  life,  with  one  eye  in  the  future 
and  one  in  the  past,  and  one  can  not  but  acknowledge  their 
superiority. 

Being  constitutionally  free  fi'om  envy  and  jealousy,  I 
can  well  afiPord  to  praise  others,  knowing  that,  though  the 
American  school  lacks  this  admirable  and  desirable  accom- 
plishment I  have  described  above,  it  has  other  virtues  which 
redeem  it  in  the  eyes  of  every  impartial  observer.  How- 
ever, I  respectfully  suggest  to  school  authorities  to  tiy  and 
lift  this  particular  branch  of  instruction  to  a  higher  level. 
It  pays,  as  is  seen  in  the  thrifty  industry  of  German  women. 
But  if  these  manual  occupations  in  school  did  nothing  else 
than  temporarily  lead  the  pupils  from  excessive  brain-work 
to  something  equally  valuable,  that  alone  would  be  a  suffi- 
cient cause  to  foster  them.     But  first  teach  the  teachers ! 

II.  On  a  previous  page  I  referred  to  the  fact  that,  side  by 
side  with  the  course  in  manual  occupations  for  girls,  goes  a 
course  in  drawing  which  lifts  this  branch  of  the  curriculum 
to  a  higher  level  than  it  can  otherwise  reach.  Li  previous 
chapters  I  have  paid  attention  to  the  boys'  drawing,  particu- 
larly to  their  course  in  drawing  from  solids,  and  gave  a 
number  of  copies  illustrating  this,  and  I  am  confident  that  I 
can  in  no  better  way  illustrate  the  course  in  ornamental 
drawing  laid  down  for  the  girls  than  by  oflPering  a  few  sam- 
ples which  may  prove : 

1.  The  very  systematic  and  thorough  treatment  the  sub- 
ject receives ; 

2.  The  practical  bearings  this  kind  of  drawing  has  upon 
the  manual  occupations ;  and, 

3.  That  the  results  of  free  inventive  drawing  or  adapta- 
tion of  elementary  forms  in  complicated  composition  are  not 
to  be  despised. 

Not  being  an  artist,  I  am  naturally  constrained  to  select 


124  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

simple  specimens,  for  I  am  utterly  unable  to  follow  the  stu- 
dents to  higher  ranges  of  art  and  produce  copies  of  draw- 
ings with  many  intricate  combinations.  What  I  offer  in 
the  following  cuts  I  saw  done  by  pupils.  Instead  of  giving 
them  in  their  "  life-size,"  1  copy  them  in  reduced  size  from 


Series  I.— Figs.  99-107. 

a  course  laid  down  for  the  guidance  of  the  teachers.  This 
work  is  used  in  several  cities,  and  contains  thousands  of 
models,  all  systematically  arranged,  following  each  other  in 
genetic  order.  I  trust  that  my  readers  will  readily  see  fix)m 
this  scanty  selection  that  the  models  are  adapted  to  be  ap- 
plied in  work  with  yarn,  cloth,  linen,  lace.  etc. 


GIRLS'  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION.  .     125 

Another  batch  which  follows  this  one  may  give  evidence 
to  the  development  of  the  sense  of  beauty.  But  of  that, 
more  anon. 

Series  I  consists  of  polygons  in  the  circle  and  the  simple 
stai-s  that  may  be  inscribed.     These  do  not,  by  far,  exhaust 


Series  I.— Figs.  108-116. 

the  series.  They  are  only  a  few  selected  ones.  There  are 
still  hundreds  of  pos.sibilities  for  combinations.  Of  course, 
in  drawing  them  the  ruler  and  compasses  are  used.  The 
compasses  are  introduced  during  the  sixth  school  year.  (See 
Figs.  99-125.) 

One  of  the  objects  of  the  teachers  in  the  upper  grades  is 


126  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

that  the  pupils  may  be  led  to  invent  new  forms  from  given 
lines,  curves,  and  measurements.  This  is  not  as  hard  as  it 
would  seem.  Children  here  display  a  great  deal  of  ingenu- 
ity.    Of  course,  these  invented  forms  are  only  reinventions, 


Series  I.— Figs.  117-125. 

for  there  is  hardly  any  ornamental  form  that  has  not  been 
produced  before  by  others.  But  that  does  not  lessen  the 
value  of  the  pupil's  own  work.  Such  work  is  formative  to 
a  high  degree.  I  add  two  of  such  reinventions  to  show 
the  conceptlve  power  of  a  developed  sense  of  form  and 
beauty.     (See  Figs.  126, 127.) 


GIRLS'    INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


127 


Fig.  126. 


Fig.  127. 


10 


128  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 

Series  II,  which  follows  on  page  129,  is  a  reproduction  in 
miniature  of  drawings  which  I  saw  beautifully  colored  in 
sepia,  green,  yellow,  blue,  etc.     (See  Figs.  128-135.) 

I  sincerely  hope  none  of  my  readers  will  think  it  super- 
fluous to  have  these  specimens  cut  in  wood.  I  trust  they 
will  be  heartily  welcomed  by  the  women  teachers,  especially 
at  a  time  in  which  manual  training  for  the  boys  is  so  ably 
and  masterly  defended.  To  reverse  the  proverb,  "  What's 
sauce  for  the  gander  ought  to  be  sauce  for  the  goose.'' 

Series  III.  The  drawings  I  submit  in  this  series  are  from 
the  same  course  to  which  the  others  belonged.  From  plain 
geometrical  figures  the  course  leads  over  to  a  more  inde- 
pendent use  of  the  curved  line.  The  combinations  are  all 
very  fine.  Conventionalized  animal  and  plant  forms  are 
brought  in,  and  the  way  is  paved  to  free  invention  of  new 
forms.  The  schemes  of  geometrical  figures  are  the  common 
property  of  all  the  nations  that  ever  tried  to  conventionalize 
forms.  But  every  civilized  nation  which  has  established  a 
national  self-dependence  turns  to  certain  forms  as  its  fa- 
vorite ones,  and  develops  these  in  vulgar  as  well  as  in  fine 
art,  and  often  succeeds  in  opening  new  vistas  into  undis- 
covered realms  of  art.  Thus  national  styles  originate. 
Think  of  the  straight  line  and  the  triangle,  and  you  have 
the  ground-form  of  Greek  architecture  ;  think  of  the  half- 
circle,  and  you  have  the  Roman  form ;  think  of  the  two  arcs 
meeting  in  a  point,  and  you  have  the  Gothic ;  and  so  I  might 
go  on  through  a  chapter  of  the  history  of  ari.  (See  Figs. 
1C6-138.) 

But  I  fear  that  an  essay  on  that  subject  would  be  written 
pour  le  roi  de  Prusse,  as  the  Frenchman  says.  The  author 
would  have  to  let  it  die  an  ignoble  and  cruel  death  in  the 
waste-basket.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  styles  are  taught  here  in 
school  in  a  most  practical  way  "by  doing."  Besides,  every 
one  of  the  rosettes  I  copied  may  be  found  chiseled  in  stone 
or  carved  in  wood,  by  inspecting  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne, 
or  the  elegant  portico  of  the  city  hall,  or  the  ancient  tower 
of  that  hall,  or  the  stained-glass  windows  found  in  almost 


GIRLS'   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


129 


Series  II.— Fiqs.  128-135. 


130  COLOGNE   (RHENISH   PRUSSIA). 

Series  III. 


Fig.  136.— Modern  Style. 


Fio.  137.— Gothic  Style. 


GIRLS*   INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


lU 


every  ancient  building,  especially  in  the  cathedral.  The  se- 
lections I  offer  here  are  so  diffei'ent  in  conception  that  they 
indicate  the  vast  variety  possible. 

I  add  also  two  applications  of  animal  and  plant  forms, 
rep]*esenting  two  distinct  styles,  the  one  modern,  the  other 
Gothic.     I  select  these  because  I  found  them  beautifully  re- 


^§^ 


Fig.  138. 

produced  in  lace  and  embroidered  tidies.  If  I  find  more 
sets  of  such  drawings  I  shall  with  pleasure  copy  and  insert 
them. 

Series  IV.  The  drawings  submitted  in  this  series  are  taken 
from  courses  pursued  in  various  schools  of  Germany.  I  in- 
sert them  because  the  forms,  despite  their  eminent  beauty,  are 


132 


COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


Series  IV. -Figs.  13ft-l48. 


GIRLS'   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


133 


Series  IV.-Fms.  149-154. 


134:  COLOGNE  (RHENISH  PRUSSIA). 


Series  IV. -Figs.  155-160. 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW.  135 

simple  and  can  be  reproduced  in  crocheting  and  in  other 
ornamental  needlework,  as  I  saw  it  done  ;  also  because  few 
hand-books  for  girls'  industrial  education  in  our  country 
contain  models  of  this  kind.  Of  course,  I  do  not  intend  to 
publish  such  a  manual,  but  I  sincerely  hope  that  the  models 
here  offered  may  be  of  service  to  teachers  and  give  them  a 
standard  with  which  to  measure  their  own  etfoj-ts.  (See 
Figs.  139-160.) 


CHAPTER  VII. 

BERLIN. 

1.  The  Old  and  the  New. 

From  Cologne,  the  ancient,  I  went  after  a  short  interval 
to  Berlin,  the  n^odern  city  of  the  German  Empire,  and  the 
move  proved  a  very  happy  one,  for  I  could  thus  notice  the 
fundamental  difference  between  the  two  cities  and  compare 
the  impressions  they  made  upon  me.  In  one  thing  Berlin 
has  the  advantage  over  Cologne  and  many  other  old  cities 
of  the  empire :  its  school  system  is  a  rather  recent  growth. 
Not  that  1  mean  to  say  Berlin  has  not  had  communal 
schools  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  tliis  centurj',  but  the 
city  authorities  had  allowed  the  private-school  calamity  to 
grow  to  an  insufferable  degree,  so  that  the  communal-school 
system  had  degenerated  to  a  system  of  poor  or  pauper 
schools.  But  when,  under  the  overpowering  influence  of 
the  rejuvenation  of  the  empire,  Berlin  became  an  imperial 
city,  and  Dr.  Falk,  the  liberal-minded  lawyer,  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Education,  soon  after  1871,  the  city  scliool  system 
took  an  upward  start,  such  as  can  scarcely  find  a  parallel, 
unless  it  be  the  sudden  establishment  of  a  system  of  "  board- 
schools  "  in  London. 

Berlin  has  no  more  old  school-houses.  No  such  iniqui- 
ties as  dedicating  an  ancient,  musty  convent  to  school  pur- 
poses are  tolerated  by  the  Berlin  city  fathers     If,  in  any 


136  BERLIN. 

part  of  the  marvelously  expanding  city,  a  school-house  is 
needed,  no  old  relics  of  former  glory  are  used,  but  a  new- 
house  is  built.  The  many  private  schools  that  used  to  flour- 
ish like  mushrooms  have  shriveled  up  and  disappeared; 
even  tuition  fees  are  a  thing  of  the  past  in  liberal-minded 
Berlin.  And  the  state  encourages  this  with  all  its  might. 
Its  own  institutions  in  Berlin,  the  royal  seminaries,  the  uni- 
versities, the  technical  and  art  schools,  are  improved  and 
rebuilt  on  a  grand  scale. 

One  day  I  went  to  see  the  mausoleum  of  Queen  Louisa, 
at  Charlottenburg,  and  on  my  way  I  noticed  a  building  in 
Florentinian  palace  style  of  graceful  beauty,  immense  di- 
mensions and  exquisite  finish,  situated  on  a  public  boulevard. 
I  inquired  of  my  "  Murray  "  what  great  personage  lived  here, 
and  read  to  my  delight  that  this  was  the  new  Polytechnic 
University.  Well,  I  had  my  passe-partout  in  my  pocket, 
and  on  my  return  from  the  mausoleum  I  entered  this  palace 
(my  pen  hesitates  to  write  school-house),  was  shown  all  over 
it,  and  enjoyed  the  sight  of  what  modern  ideas  of  school 
architecture  had  accomplished.  It  lies  outside  the  province 
of  my  reports  to  say  anything  of  what  I  learned  here  or  in 
the  university  and  museums  of  Berlin.  It  is  but  just,  though, 
to  mention  the  proud  efforts  of  state  and  community  which 
vie  with  each  other  in  producing  something  that  will  mark 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  William  as  an  era  of  unparalleled 
exertion  in  all  domains  of  education,  art,  science,  industry, 
and  military  defense. 

Another  signal  difiPerence  between  Berlin  and  such  cities 
as  Cologne,  Mayence,  Strasburg,  etc.,  is  the  absence  of  statues 
of  saints,  popes,  and  similar  personages  in  Berlin.  One  sees 
here  the  heroes  of  the  people :  the  Great  Elector  Frederick 
William,  King  Frederick  the  Great,  the  famous  field-mar- 
shals and  generals  of  the  Prussian  army ;  the  great  men  of 
science,  Humboldt  and  Leibnitz,  the  poets  and  painters,  and 
numerous  symbolic  statues,  mostly  formed  after  classic  mod- 
els, statues  of  rare  beauty  in  bronze,  marble,  and  sandstone. 

Shall  I  generalize  and  say,  Cologne  and  other  old  Ger- 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW.  137 

man  cities  ofFor  reflections  of  the  devout  aspirations  and 
efforts  of  the  middle  ages;  Berlin,  a  child  of  the  modern  age, 
exhibits  in  all  its  doings  a  practical  turn  of  mind.  In  noth- 
ing have  the  two  cities  expi-essed  their  character  better  than 
in  their  city  halls:  Cologne's  quaint  and  incommodious  city 
hall,  with  its  moss-grown  old  Gothic  tower  of  rare  architect- 
ural beauty,  a  structure  which  seems  to  point  upward  ;  and 
Berlin's  "  brand-new  "  city  hall,  with  its  overpowering  grand- 
eur and  square,  massive,  yet  withal  beautiful  tower  which 
appears  to  plant  itself  squarely  and  say,  "  Here  I  am,  and 
I've  come  to  stay." 

My  journey,  with  its  many  professional  excursions,  is 
expensive,  but  I  do  not  rue  the  cost.  What  a  multitude  of 
ideas  this  journey  is  fiu-nishing  me  at  nearly  every  turn  of 
the  road;  what  a  world  of  scenery;  what  a  taste  for  the 
beautiful  ! 

Before  I  enter  upon  the  individual  work  of  the  teachers, 
I  must  mention  the  school-houses  in  Berlin,  It  is  custom- 
ary to  judge  from  outside  appearances.  I  do  not  wish  to 
fall  into  the  same  mistake,  but  I  venture  to  say  that  in 
houses  well  ventilated  and  warmed,  well  arranged  and  even 
adorned,  the  educational  influence  of  the  school  is  more  re- 
fining than  where  all  these  desirable  things  are  wanting. 
Now  it  is  but  true  to  say  that  we  Americans  have  not  much 
to  learn,  if  anything,  in  regard  to  school-house  architecture. 
We  are  far  ahead  of  the  Europeans  in  the  arrangement  of 
space,  in  ventilation  and  heating,  but  not  in  adorning  the 
school-houses.     Our  plain,  whitewashed  walls  are  ugly. 

There  is  one  other  consideration  in  which  the  Berlin 
school  authorities  give  their  brethren  of  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, and  other  populous  cities  a  shining  example ;  it  is  in 
the  position  of  their  new  school-houses.  This  is  so  unique, 
so  well  calculated  to  meet  the  circumstances  of  a  large  town 
and  the  well-founded  requirements  of  school,  that  it  is  worth 
while  to  call  attention  to  it. 


138 


BERLIN. 


2.  Position  of  School-Houses. 

My  readers  who  live  in.  smaller  towns,  where  the  school- 
house  is  the  most  prominent  building  surrounded  by  large, 
shady  yards,  must  understand  that  their  standard  of  a  school- 
house  can  not  be  realized  in  a  city  like  Berlin.  Open  spaces 
are  rare  in  Berlin,  almost  equally  rare  are  trees.     But  the 

_J    'I I      \_ 


BUSINESS 
BLOCK 


STREET 


~]    r 


Fig.  ICl. 


school  authorities  have  hit  upon  a  solution  of  the  difficulty 
which  is  worth  reporting.  New  school-houses  are  built  in 
the  inner  court-yard  of  a  block  of  houses  surrounded  by  four 
streets.  Two  gateways  lead  to  the  school-yard.  The  above 
sketch,  made  from  memory,  may  explain  the  plan. 

The  dotted  lines  are  to  represent  low  walls  which  inclose 
the  courts  belonging  to  the  dwellings  surrounding  the  square. 


THE  TEACHERS  OF  BERLIX.  139 

All  around  the  yard  is  found  a  row  of  trees  and  flower-beds, 
of  which  more  anon.  The  school-houses  are  three-story 
buildings  built  of  pressed  brick,  but  have  the  look  of  very 
substantial  architecture.  The  first  and  second  floor  each 
contains  six  school-rooms ;  the  third  floor  contains  the  ses- 
sion-room (aula)  of  the  school,  which  is  used  on  festive  oc- 
casions and  for  meetings.  Sometimes,  when  there  is  no 
special  building  for  the  rector  on  the  grounds,  a  dwelling  is 
found  on  the  third  floor. 

Usually  two  buildings,  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  are 
found  on  these  school-grounds.  A  third  building,  one  story 
high,  is  used  for  gymnastic  exercises.  This  latter  building 
is  never  wanting.  Hardly  ever  is  a  school-building  found 
facing  a  street,  except  in  the  older  part  of  the  town.  One 
may  wander  through  many  a  sti*eet  without  seeing  a  school- 
house.  The  market-halls  are  baOt  in  the  same  way,  in  the 
inner  square  of  a  large  block  of  houses. 

In  most  of  the  yards  of  the  schools  I  visited  I  found 
flower-beds,  and  I  heard  that  they  wei*e  used  by  the  teacher 
of  botany  quite  extensively.  The  children  are  here  induced 
to  study  leaf -forms  and  observe  the  growi;h  of  plants.  If  a 
row  of  trees  is  planted,  care  is  taken  to  select  as  great  a  vari- 
ety as  can  be  conveniently  placed.  The  sense  of  ownership 
which  is  fostered  in  the  children  with  regard  to  these  flower- 
beds, shrubs,  and  trees,  is  perhaps  the  best  protection  that  can 
be  applied.  Compared  with  American  school-yards,  those  in 
Barlin  are  small,  but  that  even  on  them  a  small  portion  is 
set  apart  for  a  school-garden  is  laudable  and  deserves  to  be 
imitated  in  large,  crowded  cities;  in  smaller  towns  of  the 
West,  where  every  family  has  a  garden  of  its  own,  it  may 
perhaps  be  superfluous,  although  in  the  interest  of  rational 
teaching  it  may  not  seem  so. 

3.  The  Teachers  of  Berlin. 

I  had  not  been  in  Berlin  quite  five  days,  when  I  had  oc- 
casion to  compare  notes  with  a  colleague  from  Norway.  I 
told  him  I  had  seen  six  schools  (three  common  schools,  one 


140  BERLIN. 

gymnasium,  one  higher  girls'  school,  and  a  private  school), 
ia  each  of  which  I  had  spent  two  or  three  hours;  six  mu- 
seums (the  National  Grallery,  the  old  and  the  new  museum, 
the  wonderful  armory  with  its  Hall  of  Fame,  and  two  school 
museums) ;  had  heard  two  operas  and  attended  three  meetings, 
namely,  one  of  the  Teachers'  Social  Club,  one  of  the  teachers 
of  the  third  school  district,  and  a  banquet.  He  thought  that 
was  making  a  business  of  pleasure,  but  I  assured  him  that 
this  was  the  only  way  which  would  enable  me  to  accomplish 
what  I  had  come  to  do. 

Mr.  Olsen,  the  Norwegian  School  Councilor,  agreed  with 
me  that  the  teachers  of  Berlin  are  a  remarkable  set  of  men, 
in  aspirations,  in  skill,  in  results,  professional  as  well  as 
social  and  political.  Berlin  has  so  many  teachers  who  have 
ideas  and  are  not  slow  in  giving  utterance  to  them,  that  it  is 
worth  associating  with  them.  They  have  a  number  of  clubs, 
societies  and  so  many  official  and  private  conferences,  that  it 
was  well-nigh  impossible  for  me  to  attend  them  all.  Some 
urgent  invitations  I  was  sorry  to  decline,  but  circumstances, 
such  as  great  distance  from  my  hotel,  demanded  it. 

The  teachers  here  maintain  a  daily  paper  of  their  own, 
several  weeklies,  and  support  with  literary  contributions 
many  professional  journals  outside.  Think  of  maintaining 
and  supporting  their  own  press !  Yet  they  are  not  clannish, 
only  they  stubbornly  defend  their  professional  interests,  and 
their  esprit  du  corps  has  done  wonders,  for  nowhere  in 
Germany  are  the  teachers  paid  so  well  as  here  in  Berlin; 
nowhere  do  teachers  occupy  so  high  a  rank  in  society  as  here, 
where  they  support  their  demands  by  numerical  strength 
and  claim  respect  by  their  talents.  I  assure  ray  readers,  the 
teachers  of  Berlin  are  factors  on  which  the  city  fathers 
reckon. 

How  I  should  like  to  see  the  teachers  of  New  York, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  St. 
Louis,  etc.,  maintain  their  rights  with  the  aid  of  the  ballot- 
box  and  a  press  of  their  own !  How  soon  some  miserable 
wretches  of  political  tricksters  who  find  their  way  into  the 


TWO  SCHOOL  MUSEUMS.  141 

Board  of  Education  would  vanish  from  the  surface !  As  cir- 
cumstances are  now,  his  Satanic  Majesty  must  have  a  broad 
grin  on  his  face,  reaching  from  ear  to  ear,  when  he  sees  some 
of  the  vilest  of  men,  men  who  can  not  even  write  their  names, 
lifted  by  the  grace  of  popular  vote  to  the  dignity  of  members 
of  the  Board  of  Education  I 

Comparisons  are  odious,  it  is  said.  That  may  be  ;  but 
they  are  very  instructive.  When  I  see  a  school  system 
maintained  by  wise,  conservative  legislation,  governed  by 
men  of  unquestioned  wisdom  and  unsullied  reputation,  and 
in  that  system  a  body  of  teachers  every  one  of  whom  is  a 
professional  teacher,  I  can  not  refrain  from  comparing  what 
is  with  what  might  be  in  our  country. 

I  had  only  one  fault  to  find  with  the  teachers  of  Berlin. 
Many  whom  I  visited  in  their  school-rooms  soon  after  I  ap- 
peared dropped  the  lesson  of  the  day  and  began  to  review, 
bent  on  showing  what  their  pupils  knew  and  could  do.  Of 
course,  to  see  what  could  be  accomplished  was  very  intei*est- 
ing,  but  it  was  not  what  I  had  come  to  see.  So,  one  day 
when  I  was  called  upon  to  address  a  gathering  of  teachers,  I 
took  occasion  to  ask  them  to  show  me  how  they  taught,  not 
what  they  had  accomplished. 

From  that  day  my  visits  were  more  fruitful  to  me  than 
before,  and,  when  I  left  Berlin  after  three  weeks  of  hard 
work  and  much  sight-seeing,  I  had  a  note-book  full  of  the 
most  interesting  notes. 

4.  Two  School  Museums. 

In  Cologne  I  had  seen  a  well-stocked  Exposition  of  Means 
of  Instruction,  supported  by  private  exertions.  Here  in  Ber- 
lin I  found  two  school  museums,  one  maintained  by  the  city, 
the  other  by  voluntary  contributions  of  the  Berlin  Teachers' 
Association.  The  City  School  Museum  is  situated  in  the 
hall  of  the  forty -sixth  common  school,  on  Stallschreiber 
Street,  It  contains  many  thousands  of  bound  books  on  peda- 
gogy and  kindred  sciences.  The  hall  is  very  well  adapted 
for  the  purpose.    The  books  are  arranged  on  two  rows  of 


142  BERLIN. 

black- walnut  shelves  neatly  called.  The  shelves  are  found 
all  around  the  room.  The  upper  row  is  approachable  by  h-on 
stairs  and  a  balcony  which  leads  all  around  the  hall.  On 
the  long  side  of  the  hall  spacious  alcoves  or  side  rooms  open, 
which  are  filled  with  apparatus  for  physics  and  chemistry, 
collections  for  the  study  of  physiology,  botany,  zoology, 
mineralogy,  maps,  charts,  general  and  special  maps  and  de- 
vices for  suspending  them,  apparatus  for  the  study  of  geome- 
try and  drawing.  In  fact,  it  is  a  valuable  collection,  such 
as  every  large  city  could  well  afford  to  have,  but  the  like  of 
which,  I  am  sorry  to  admit,  can  not  be  found  in  America. 

The  city  pays  four  thousand  marks  every  year  for  repair- 
ing and  new  purchases.  This  is  not  much,  but  with  good 
management  it  goes  a  great  way.  Many  a  valuable  book, 
stuffed  animal,  bust,  map,  etc.,  is  presented  to  the  museum, 
and  thus  the  institution  can  keep  pace  with  the  modern  re- 
quirements of  our  professional  science  and  art. 

The  other  museum  is  not  as  well  supported ;  but  it  is  a 
specialty  such  as  can  not  be  found  anywhere  else  except, 
perhaps,  in  Switzerland,  where  "  The  Pestalozzi-Stuebchen  " 
may  vie  with  this  museum.  The  peculiar  charm  of  this  one 
is  its  unique  arrangement  prescribed  by  its  object.  The 
owners  emphasize  the  historical  development  of  popular  ed- 
ucation. There  is,  for  instance,  one  section  which  contains 
every  publication  and  device  concerning  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy, arranged  according  to  historical  stages  of  develop- 
ment of  that  science  so  far  as  it  comes  within  the  pale  of  the 
common  school.  Another  section  represents  the  methods  of 
teaching  language.  This  contains  only  books  and  a  few 
charts  which  provoke  a  smile  at  the  oddities  into  which  hu- 
man ingenuity  can  be  misled.  Again,  another  section  has 
reference  to  object-lessons,  A  very  valuable  section  this  is. 
Another  is  devoted  to  arithmetic,  and  here  I  could  not  con- 
trol myself.  I  broke  out  into  laughter  when  I  observed  the 
queer  machines  and  contrivances  made  to  assist  the  teacher 
in  arithmetic.  Since  most  of  these  things  ai*e  antiquated,  it 
does  not  pay  to  sketch  them. 


CORRECTING  COMPOSITIONS.  143 

Of  late  the  managers  of  this  private  museum  have  under- 
taken the  task  of  collecting  everything  available  and  obtain- 
able with  reference  to  Diesterweg,  the  Horace  Mann  of 
Prussia.  This  is  a  most  interesting  section.  At  present  a 
Harkort  section  is  being  made. 

Take  it  all  in  all,  the  Berlin  common  schools  are  any- 
thing but  a  stagnant  pool.  There  are  life,  exertion,  enthusi- 
asm, ambition,  literary  skill,  successful  teaching,  and  good 
results.  The  administration  is  similar  to  that  of  American 
schools.  There  is  a  school  commission  (a  committee  of  the 
City  Council),  a  general  superintendent  (called  school  coun- 
cilor), seven  assistant  superintendents  (called  inspectors),  a 
rector  at  the  head  of  each  building,  and  many  associate 
teachers.  Only  those  teachers  who  are  not  engaged  defi- 
nitely as  yet  are  called  assistants.  These  have  to  prove 
their  fitness  during  a  probationary  term.  After  that  they 
are  fixtures  and  can  not  be  removed  except  for  cause. 

5.  Correcting  Compositions. 

In  a  class  representing  the  seventh  school  year  of  a  dis- 
trict (or  communal)  school  in  Berlin,  I  heard  a  lesson  which 
I  shall  not  readily  forget.  The  teacher  had  a  stack  of  com- 
position-books on  his  desk,  and  the  boys  sat  with  eager  ex- 
pectation before  him.  The  compositions  had  been  corrected 
with  red  ink,  and  the  teacher  now  took  one  after  another 
and  discussed  mistakes  he  had  found  several  times.  His 
mode  of  criticism  was  very  interesting.  An  error  in  orthog- 
raphy was  corrected  by  asking  the  ofl:ending  party  to  spell 
the  word  orally  and  write  it  on  the  blackboard. 

The  subject  of  the  composition  was  Schiller's  "  Lay  of  the 
Bell,"  which  had  been  read  and  thoroughly  treated.  The 
teacher  was  rational  yet  withal  charitable  in  his  criticism,  for 
he  never  needlessly  wounded  the  spirits  of  his  pupiLs  till  he 
came  to  one  where  his  patience  seemed  to  forsake  him.  He 
broke  out,  saying:  "  How  could  you  be  so  stupid  as  to  write 
such  things  ?  No,"  he  added,  "  I'll  take  that  back.  Stupid- 
ity is  not  your  besetting  sin,  but  criminal  negligence."  It 
11 


144  BERLIN. 

was  a  study  to  see  the  face,  wbich  showed  defiance  at  the 
accusation  of  being  stupid,  soften  when  the  teacher  did  him 
the  justice  to  acknowledge  that  it  was  not  stupidity  but  neg- 
ligence which  lay  at  the  root  of  this  worthless  work.  The 
boy  bowed  his  head  in  shame  and  said :  "  Please,  sir,  I  was 
hurried  when  I  wrote  this  work.  I'll  do  it  over  again  if 
you'll  allow  me.     I  am  sure  I  can  do  it  better  next  time." 

Sentences  which  were  faulty  in  construction  were  writ- 
ten out  in  full  after  being  corrected  orally.  Then  they  were 
repeated  in  chorus,  and  thus  the  correct  construction  made 
a  more  lasting  impression.  I  nowhere  find  incorrect  words 
or  sentences  spread  on  the  board  in  German  schools,  and  I 
am  induced  to  think  that  this  is  more  beneficial  than  the 
sight  of  numerous  mistakes.  An  error  which  had  its  root 
in  dialectic  speech  was  weeded  out  thoroughly  by  making  a 
number  of  pupils  repeat  the  correct  form,  while  the  incor- 
rect form  was  heard  only  once.  Thus  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  correct  obliterates  the  incorrect  form.  Like  the 
teachers  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  those  of  Berlin  have  to  fight 
constantly  with  the  wretched  dialect  of  the  lower  strata  of 
the  population.  The  teachers  of  Thuringia  and  the  provinces 
of  Saxony  and  Hanover  have  an  easy  time  of  it  compared 
with  the  Sisyphus  work  of  their  colleagues  in  Berlin  and 
Cologne. 

Well,  this  work  of  correcting  went  on,  and  the  teacher 
dealt  out  his  commendation  and  reproof  with  the  spirit  of  a 
true  educator  who  knows  every  one  of  his  pupils  and  gives 
his  doses  according  to  the  nature  of  the  disease.  This  lesson 
closed,  and  at  the  stroke  of  the  clock  the  next  followed.  It 
was  a  unique  one,  to  say  little.  On  the  programme  it  was 
marked  "Miscellaneous."  The  teacher  explained  that  this 
hour  was  reserved  every  week  for  the  boys'  "  spontaneous 
efforts. "  Each  pupil  was  permitted  to  prepare  a  contribu- 
tion of  his  own,  the  reading  of  a  composition  on  a  topic 
chosen  by  himself,  or  the  recitation  of  a  poem  of  his  own 
choice,  or  an  oral  description  of  scenery  viewed,  or  a  narra- 
tion of  an  event  witnessed  by  himself,  etc. 


MODE  OF  PROCEDURE.  145 

This  was  a  very  instructive  lesson  to — the  teacher ;  yes, 
instructive  to  him,  for  it  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  studying 
his  pupils.  They  unconsciously  revealed  their  true  nature, 
partly  by  their  choice  of  a  subject,  partly  by  their  mode  of 
rendition,  partly  by  the  reception  their  work  found  among 
their  schoolmates. 

"  You  see,"  said  the  teacher,  "  this  is  my  special  study- 
hour,  and  the  notes  I  take  during  this  hour  spent  in  listen- 
ing to  voluntary  contributions  are  of  incalculable  benefit  to 
me."  I  spent  a  day  in  this  school  in  several  class-rooms,  and 
traced  among  the  entire  corps  of  teachers  the  influence  of 
this  excellent  rector. 

6.  My  Mode  op  Procedure. 

I  must  not  repeat  myself,  and  can  therefore  not  sketch 
many  of  the  lessons  I  saw  in  Berlin,  because  they  very  much 
resembled  the  lessons  I  sketched  on  previous  pages.  This 
time  a  statement  of  my  mode  of  procedure  may  take  the 
place  of  a  description. 

Early  in  the  morning,  before  eight  o'clock,  I  call  at  the 
office  of  the  rector,  hand  him  ray  passe-partout,  and  am  re- 
ceived with  courtesy.  He  places  before  me  his  daily  pix)- 
gramme,  which  contains  a  summary  of  all  the  daily  pro- 
grammes of  the  whole  school — that  is,  of  all  the  class-rooms 
in  the  house.  Upon  inquiry  after  special  meritorious  cases, 
I  get  the  information  I  want  and  select  the  lessons  I  desire 
to  hear ;  but  I  am  careful  to  select  several  for  every  hour  of 
the  school  day,  so  that,  in  case  I  may  have  made  a  poor 
choice,  I  can  retire  to  another  class-room.  If  I  "strike  a 
gold-mine,"  I  stay;  if,  on  the  contrary,  I  find  indifferent 
teaching  (which,  to  do  honor  to  truth,  happens  rarely),  I 
usually  advance  some  plausible  pretext  for  retiring.  Thus 
I  am  enabled  to  see  a  good  deal.  Though  it  is  exhausting 
work,  it  lasts  only  till  twelve  or  at  most  till  one  o'clock. 
(For  reasons,  see  No.  9  below  on  school  sessions  in  Berlin.) 
The  afternoons  are  left  to  pleasure,  sight-seeing,  and  attend- 
ing teachers'  meetings. 


146  BERLIN. 

One  day  I  followed  an  urgent  invitation  to  a  private 
school.  I  had  spent  about  an  hour  in  it,  and  had  gone  from 
room  to  room  without  seeing  anything  that  could  entice  me 
to  stay,  when  I  took  French  leave  and  went  in  search  of 
another  school.  My  usual  luck  favored  me.  I  came  to  the 
Coelnische  Gymnasium,  and  was  greatly  elated  at  finding 
that  the  rector  was  Prof.  Dr.  Kern,  the  famous  grammarian, 
a  man  who  has  recently  published  a  number  of  books  on  a 
new  mode  of  treating  grammar,  and  a  text-book  on  pedagogy, 
for  young  teachers.  I  had  a  charming  interview  with  Prof. 
Kern,  and  shall  remember  his  school. 

On  the  programme  was  trigonometry  in  Lower  Prima, 
taught  by  Prof.  Hermes,  author  of  well-known  text-books 
on  mathematics  ;  and,  since  I  was  desirous  to  compare  the 
teaching  of  such  a  man  with  that  of  others  I  had  seen,  I  ex- 
pressed that  desire.  Prof.  Kern  said,  ''  You  seem  to  know 
where  you  may  expect  something  worth  seeing."  Well,  he 
took  me  up  to  that  teacher,  and  I  was  very  glad  of  it  after- 
ward. 

The  professor,  a  fine,  old,  white-haired  man,  took  no  no- 
tice of  us  after  the  introduction,  and  I  had  the  best  opportu- 
nity to  observe  him  and  his  students.  A  very  difficult  and 
knotty  problem  was  given  out,  and  a  few  moments  were 
spent  in  hard  thinking.  Then  a  student  was  called  up  who 
began  to  demonstrate.  At  a  deviation  from  the  mathemati- 
cal logic,  the  professor  followed  up  this  thread  and  proved 
its  absurdity,  then  led  the  student  back  to  where  the  break 
had  occurred,  and  again  the  student  started  out.  He  did  not 
rise  from  his  seat,  but,  while  solving  the  problem  orally, 
made  the  algebraic  figures  with  astonishing  velocity  in  his 
note-book. 

Another  student  was  called  who  got  through  the  whole 
solution  without  a  break.  A  third  was  called  to  the  board 
to  demonstrate  the  problem  by  drawing  the  figure,  and  it 
was  a  sight  worth  seeing  as  the  boys  sat  there  watching  the 
demonstrator.  The  professor  was  an  excellent  methodician. 
He  never  did  for  the  students  what  they  might  do  for  them- 


HOME-MADE  CHARTS.  147 

selves.  His  memory  was  simply  prodigious.  When,  after 
about  ten  minutes  of  demonstrating,  a  student  mistook  the 
letter  m  for  n,  the  professor,  without  looking  at  the  board, 
said,  "  Look  again,  you  are  mistaking  one  angle  for  another." 
I  was  convinced  that  these  students  learned  mathematics 
thoroughly. 

Though  I  heard  many  fine  lessons  in  Berlin,  I  missed  the 
methodical  skill  I  had  found  in  some  schools  in  the  western 
part  of  the  kingdom.  Herbart  is  not  considered  in  Berlin 
the  great  apostle  which  they  make  of  him  in  Saxony  and 
Thui'ingia. 

7.  Home-made  Charts. 

In  a  school  in  Berlin  I  noticed  a  number  of  charts  that 
had  been  made  of  common  dark-blue  packing  or  wrapping 
paper.  This  paper  had  been  pasted  on  a  light  wooden  frame. 
The  teacher  had  then  written  on  the  paper  or  sketched  his 
illustrations  with  pointed  white  and  colored  crayons  very 
neatly  (they  had  reference  to  botany,  zoology,  physiology, 
physics,  etc.),  and  then,  in  order  to  preserve  them  for  future 
use,  he  had  covered  the  paper  with  fresh  (unboiled)  milk. 
The  soft,  spongy  paper  had  absorbed  the  fluid,  but  the  milk 
formed  a  sufficiently  strong  coat  of  varaish  to  preserve  the 
crayon-marks.  The  paper,  when  dried  thoroughly,  was 
stretched  tight,  and  lost  its  former  fiabbiness,  so  that  the 
charts  when  hung  up  for  use  would  not  collect  dust  any  more 
than  any  other  smooth  surface.  The  charts  can  be  dusted 
with  a  feather  or  hair  dust-brush  •  without  injury  to  the 
illustrations  ;  the  only  thing  which  will  injure  the  charts  is 
moisture,  for  that  will  warp  them. 

I  inquired  whether  the  wooden  frames  were  necessary, 
and  the  reply  was,  "Yes,  lest  the  paper  become  warped 
during  the  process  of  drying  after  it  is  soaked  with  milk." 
But  one  frame  will  do  for  a  good  many  charts.  After  one 
is  thoroughly  dry,  it  may  be  cut  out  of  the  frame  and  hung 
up  for  use,  or  secured  in  a  portfolio.  Then  a  new  chart  is 
mounted,  covered  with  illustrations  and  writing,  and  then 
''  milked  "  to  give  it  a  coat.    The  milk  must  not  be  spread 


uz. 


(  (  ( 


148  BERLIN. 

over  with  a  brush,  but  poured  over  the  sheet.  The  teacher 
who  had  hit  upon  this  device  was  a  handy  draughtsman,  and 
had  prepared  a  great  number  of  charts  for  plant  analysis 
and  other  studies,  and  he  adds  a  few  charts  to  his  stock 
every  year.  Some  of  those  I  saw  were  ten  years  old,  but 
they  were  as  fresh-looking  as  though  made  yesterday. 

8.  A  Map-Suspender. 

Sometimes  a  teacher  neglects  to  hang  up  a  map  dm-ing 
the  lesson  in  geography,  because  it  is  inconvenient  to  handle 
the  large,  imwieldy  wall-map.  To  be  candid,  in  some  schools 
no  devices  for  suspending  maps  easily  are  found.    In  Berlin, 

in  a  school  for  youngladies, 
c^    I   found   a    device  which 
deserves  to  be  mentioned. 
Here  is  a  sketch  of  it : 
MAP  SUSPENDER.  Au  iron  rod  is  fastened 

close  to  the  wall ;  from  that 
is  suspended  by  two  hooks 
a  tin  cylinder,  which  has 
a  slit  one  third  of  an  inch 

VIEW  OF  LOWEfl  SIDE.  .  .  , , ,  t     ,        •■,  t 

Figs  162  163  ^^  Width.    Into  the  cylin- 

der is  shoved  the  upper  rod 
of  a  mounted  map  while  the  map  passes  through  the  slit. 
A  handle  soldered  on  to  the  cylinder  affords  an  easy  hand- 
ling. The  young  ladies  used  the  apparatus  dexterously, 
and  changed  the  maps  without  loss  of  time. 

9.  Length  op  School  Sessions. 

In  Berlin  the  daily  school  session  opens  at  eight  o'clock 
in  the  morning  and  usually  lasts  till  one  o'clock,  rarely  till 
two.  The  primary  classes  are  dismissed  at  twelve  o'clock. 
In  the  afternoon  only  such  classes  as  were  dismissed  at 
one  or  at  twelve  have  one  more  lesson,  but  this  is  a  lesson 
in  gymnastics,  drawing,  and  industrial  pursuits.  No  absorb- 
ing brain- work  is  done  in  the  afternoon.  From  eight  till 
one  o'clock  are  five  hours  ;  that  is  considered  enough  for 


NORMAIi   SCHOOL   FOR   YOUNG   LADIES.  I49 

one  day's  brain-work.  But  notice  that  this  five  hours'  work 
takes  place  six  times  a  week,  the  pupils  having,  as  every- 
w^here  else  in  Germany,  no  whole  holiday  on  Saturday,  but 
are  free  on  two  afternoons,  namely,  Wednesdays  and  Satur- 
days. Since  the  afternoons  of  the  other  four  week-days  are 
occupied  with  gymnastics,  manual  work  or  drawing,  the 
fact  remains  that  the  pupils  here  do  a  solid  day's  brain- work, 
of  five  hours  each,  six  times  a  week. 

It  may  be  claimed  that  five  consecutive  hours  is  too  much 
for  one  session.  That  is  true,  but  the  difficulty  is  obviated 
by  giving  the  pupils  a  recess  after  each  hour.  There  is  a 
short  recess  of  five  minutes  at  nine  and  at  eleven  o'clock, 
and  one  of  ten  minutes  each  at  ten  and  twelve  o'clock. 
These  frequent  recesses  prevent  an  undue  exertion  of  the 
brain.  Though  the  order  which  makes  the  boys  do  six  days' 
work  is  very  ingenious,  I  doubt  whether  our  independent 
American  youth  would  submit  to  the  arrangement  which 
would  virtually  wipe  out  their  time-honored  privilege  of  en- 
joying a  holiday  on  Saturday. 

'As  to  vacations,  they  have  here  one  week  at  Christmas, 
one  at  Easter,  one  at  Whitsuntide,  and  three  weeks  at  har- 
vest-time in  the  fall  (usually  in  September) ;  total,  six  weeks. 
Deduct  this  from  the  fifty-two  weeks  of  the  year,  and  you 
have  forty-six  school  weeks  left,  as  compared  with  our  forty. 
Few  city  schools  in  the  United  States  have  a  longer  school 
year  than  forty  weeks.  It  stands  to  reason  that  a  school  can 
accomplish  more  in  forty-six  weeks  of  six  days  each,  than 
one  in  forty  weeks  of  five  days  each,  all  other  things  being 
equal. 

10.  Normal  School  for  Young  Ladies  in  Berlin. 

A.  Tlie  Building. — My  former  connection  with  the  Cin- 
cinnati Normal  School  has  left  a  special  liking  in  me  for 
schools  of  similar  character.  I  saw  one  in  Cologne,  and  have 
mentioned  my  experiences  there  in  former  letters.  Here  in 
Berlin  I  had  occasion  to  see  and  thoroughly  ins^wct  another 
normal  school  for  women.     Comparisons  are  odious,  and  I 


150  BERLIN. 

will  therefore  refrain  from  comparing  this  school  with 
similar  institutions  in  America,  though  I  am  sure  the  com- 
parison may  in  some  instances  turn  the  scale  in  favor  of 
American  schools,  notably  if  the  munificence  with  which 
they  are  founded  and  supported  is  taken  into  consideration. 

The  school  I  wish  to  speak  of  is  not  a  city  institution  like 
the  one  in  Cologne,  but  is  supported  by  the  state  exclusively ; 
in  fact,  it  is  the  first  state  institution  of  this  kind  in  Prussia. 
In  one  of  my  former  letters  I  said  that  the  state  as  such  of- 
fered no  professional  training  to  young  ladies  who  intend  to 
become  teachers.  This  is  not  quite  correct.  The  state  partly 
supports  a  few  such  normal  schools ;  but  their  number  is  not 
in  just  proportion  to  the  number  of  normal  schools  for 
young  men.  It  is  perhaps  two  or  three  to  one  hundred. 
This  seminary  in  Berlin,  together  with  its  extensive  practice 
department  of  over  fourteen  classes,  is  known  as  the  "  Au- 
gusta School."  It  enjoys  the  "  protection  "  of  the  Empress 
Augusta,  whose  bust,  in  over  life-size,  adorns  the  large  ses- 
sion hall,  of  which  more  anon. 

The  school-house  is  a  magnificent  building  which  has 
cost  five  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  marks,  or  about  one 
hundred  and  ten  thousand  dollars,  to  build.  It  consists  of 
an  enormous  main  building  and  a  wing.  Pressed  brick  and 
stone  facings  make  the  building  look  very  handsome.  A 
fine  vestibule  and  massive  gates  lead  to  a  roomy  stair-house. 
Pillars  of  solid  sandstone  and  a  broad  marble  staircase,  fine- 
ly carved  gates  and  doors,  wrought-iron  railings  and  par- 
titions of  exquisite  workmanship,  stained-glass  windows, 
fresco-paintings,  and  heavy  cornices  of  immaculate  white- 
ness inside,  make  the  school  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  for- 
ever. The  school-rooms  are  small  as  compared  with  what  I 
consider  the  proper  size  of  a  school-room. 

The  practice  department  of  the  Augusta  Seminary  is  a 
complete  common  school  of  nine  grades  (nine  school  years), 
with  several  parallel  classes,  in  none  of  which  are  found 
more  than  twenty  pupils,  and  the  seminary  proper  has  a 
course  of  three  years.    The  class-rooms  for  all  these  classes 


NORMAL  SCHOOL  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES.  151 

are  on  the  first  and  second  floors.  On  the  second  is  also 
found"the  hall  for  physics  and  chemistry,  with  amphitheat- 
rically  arranged  seats,  the  library,  the  school  museum,  the 
office  of  the  rector,  and  the  conference-room  of  the  faculty. 
On  the  third  floor  is  the  art-room  and  also  the  "  aula  "  or 
session  hall.  This  is  the  most  splendid  school-room  I  have 
seen  in  twenty-five  years.  Tliink  of  frescoed  walls,  of  a  ceil- 
ing of  carved  oak-wood,  of  stained-glass  windows,  of  marble 
facings  and  an  inlaid  floor,  a  grand  organ  and  commodious 
settees ! 

The  marble  stairs  and  mosaic  floors  of  the  corridors  are 
protected  by  a  strip  of  linoleum,  and  the  cleanliness  in  this 
school  reminds  the  visitor  of  fairy  tales.  Not  a  speck  of 
dust  anywhere — a.  fine  testimonial  to  the  eflficiency  of  the 
janitor.  The  visitor,  accustomed  to  criminal  negligence  and 
dirt  found  in  so  many  German  schools,  feels  inclined  to  step 
softly  here.  The  system  of  ventilation  and  warming  is  so 
perfect  that  no  vitiated  air  is  noticeable  after  several  hours. 
They  have  steam-heating  and  automatic  ventilation  happily 
combined.  O,  happy  childi-en  who  can  spend  their  youth 
in  such  a  school ! 

B.  The  Practice  Department. — Having  expressed  my  de- 
sire to  see  the  young  ladies  of  the  senior  class  teach,  I  was 
conducted  through  the  eight  rooms  of  the  four  lower  grades, 
where  I  heard  lessons  in  primary  arithmetic. 

The  course  I  saw  in  actual  operation  was  :  First  half- 
year,  operations  in  addition  and  subtraction  of  numbers  be- 
tween 1  and  10  and  counting  to  100 ;  only  oral  work.  Sec- 
ond half-year,  all  the  four  fundamental  rules  applied  to 
numbers  between  1  and  20 ;  here  begins  written  work.  First 
half  of  second  year,  all  the  operations  with  whole  numbers 
between  1  and  100,  counting  to  1,000.  Second  half  of  second 
year,  same  with  whole  numbers  and  simple  fractions ;  also 
some  denominate  numbers.  In  this,  the  beginning  of  the 
second  half  of  the  second  year,  I  heard  problems  solved,  such 
as  "  Sixteen  thirds,  how  many  whole  ones  and  thirds  ? "  Tlie 
answer  came  instantly,  "  Five  whole  ones  and  one  third." 


152  BERLIN. 

Fractions  were  also  •written  by  these  children,  who 
handled  them  "  with  ease  and  elegance,"  as  though  they  of- 
fered no  difficulties  whatever.  At  the  close  of  the  second 
year  the  children  must  have  mastered  the  multiplication- 
table,  and  they  were  just  at  work  with  the  tables  of  eight 
and  nine,  which  they  recited  in  this  wise: 

(a)    8, 16,  24,  32,  40,  48,  56,  64,  72,  80. 
(&)  80,  72,  64,  56,  48,  40,  32,  24,  16,    8. 
(c)    1x8=   8,  2  X  8  =  16,  3  X  8  =  24,  etc. 
(cO  10  X  8  =  80,  9  X  8  =  72,  8  X  8  =  64,  etc. 

This  recital  backward  and  forward  made  the  pupils  very 
dexterous  in  the  use  of  the  tables. 

The  third  school  year  completes  multiplication  and  di- 
vision with  large  numbers,  and  the  fourth  adds  denominate 
numbers  and  a  more  thorough  treatment  of  fractions.  In 
the  third  year  it  was  where  I  found  such  problems  as  "  Find 
one  sixth  of  68,  one  eighth  of  91,  one  seventh  of  86,"  etc., 
solved  very  quickly.  All  this  may  seem  to  many  of  my 
readers  like  a  tale  from  fairy -land.  Even  I  who  had  claimed 
that  more  could  be  done  in  our  schools  if  the  fundamental 
rules  were  treated  from  the  beginning— even  I  was  dum- 
founded  when  I  saw  the  chapter  of  fractions  completed  in 
the  A  Primary  (or  the  fourth  school  year) ;  but,  when  I  con- 
sidered the  material  these  teachers  worked  with,  I  fell  back 
into  my  nil  admirari.  The  pupils  were  children  Avho  came 
from  very  refined  homes,  the  so-called  "  Geheimraths  -Vier- 
tel,"  and  spoke  almost  faultless  German.  The  Sisyphus 
work  of  correcting  their  mother-tongue  or  dialect  did  not  re- 
tard the  teachers  in  their  work. 

In  this  school  I  found  a  very  simple  and  useful  apparatus 
for  illustrating  the  combinations  in  arithmetic  between  1 
and  100.  It  consists  of  a  small  blackboard  two  feet  square 
into  which  small  smooth  holes  are  bored.  Into  these  holes 
white  ivory  buttons  were  inserted,  such  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
These  buttons  are  easily  removed  and  replaced,  and  can  be 
handled  by  the  pupils.     (See  Fig.  164.) 


o   o 

oo   0OOOOO5 

o   o 

000000003 

o   o 

0  0  0  0  0  0  0  01 

o   o 

000000004 

o   6 

0000  0000 

oooooooo 

I     o 

::::::::^ 

NORMAL  SCHOOL  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES.  153 

The  so-called  Russian  numeral  frame  also  is  greatly  im- 
proved in  this  school.  On  both  sides  of  the  frame  is  a  strip 
of  black  board,  behind -which 
the  balls  that  are  not  used 
in  an  operation  are  hidden. 

From  the  second  half  of 
the  first  year  a  series  of 
blank  books  is  used  in  arith- 
metic, the  leaves  of  which 
are  covered  with  a  net  of 
lines  intersecting  each  other 
at  right  angles.  The  work 
entered  upon  these  pages 
was  remarkably  neat  and 
very  correct.  ^°-  ^^• 

The  students  were  well  trained  in  teaching.  I  inquired 
how  that  was  accomplished.  "  Simply  by  thorough  theoretic 
preparation  and  by  giving  them  much  free  elbow-room — 
that  is,  allowing  them  to  remain  in  charge  of  a  room  for 
saveral  weeks.  After  the  charm  of  novelty  is  worn  off,  they 
are  visited  by  their  schoolmates  and  by  the  practice  teacher, 
and  then  their  work  is  criticised,"  was  the  answer. 

C.  Tfie  Normal  School-Work. — "What  preparation  do 
you  require  of  these  students  before  you  admit  them  to  the 
nonnal  school  (or  seminary)  ? "  "  The  results  of  a  higher 
young  ladies'  school,  which  has  a  course  of  nine  years. 
They  may  get  that  education  anywhere,  or  privately,  or  in 
our  Augusta  Practice  School ;  in  fact,  wherever  they  please. 
But  we  admit  none  except  those  who  pass  the  examination 
for  admission." 

For  once  my  customary  luck  forsook  me  in  this  school. 
The  rector,  Mr.  Supprian,  well  known  iii  German  educa- 
tional circles  as  author  of  popular  text-books  and  readers, 
and  a  good  speaker,  was  ill  and  off  on  a  furlough;  but  he 
•was  well  represented  by  otlier  men  of  the  faculty.  One  of 
these  gentlemen  gave  a  lesson  to  the  students  of  the  senior 
class  on  the  history  of  methods  of  teaching  reading,  which 


154:  BERLIN. 

lesson  I  wish  all  those  American  teachers  had  heard  who 
are  now  killing  rational  teaching  in  the  hud  hy  insisting 
upon  the  pure,  unadulterated  word-method. 

The  students  were  very  well  acquainted  with  the  en- 
tire history  of  the  phonic  method,  with  all  its  phases  of  de- 
velopment. Good  old  Ickelsamer,  the  fii*st  inventor  of  it, 
would  have  chuckled  in  his  grave  could  he  have  heard  the 
lesson.  Stephani,  the  Bavarian  school  inspector,  too,  re- 
ceived his  full  share  of  the  fame  as  reinventor  and  as  pro- 
moter of  good  teaching.  The  whole  lesson  was  like  an  Ax- 
minster  carpet,  rich  in  colors,  exquisite  in  form  and  design — 
that  is,  full  of  interesting  historical  data,  alternating  with 
arguments  as  to  the  merits  of  this,  that,  and  another  method. 
The  course  in  methodical  treatment  of  sounds,  open  and 
closed  syllables,  etc.,  was  well  established.  All  enjoyed  the 
lesson — the  teacher,  the  young  students,  and,  more  than  all, 
myself. 

There  was  no  difficulty  in  finding  my  way  from  room  to 
room,  for  in  the  corridors  could  be  seen  on  every  door  what 
class  was  engaged  in  the  room,  and  the  daily  programme 
was  suspended  under  glass  outside,  so  that  one  need  not  en- 
ter the  room  to  inquire  what  was  going  on  inside.  This 
seemed  to  me  so  useful  a  thing  that  I  resolved  to  mention  it. 

"Well,  I  found  my  way  to  the  art  hall,  in  which  drawing 
was  taught.  It  was  a  magnificent  room,  fully  sixty  feet 
long  by  thirty  wide.  High  windows  with  north  light  made 
this  room  especially  fit  for  the  purpose.  I  will  not  go  into 
details,  but  only  mention  an  idea  I  gathered  here.  The  stu- 
dents, about  forty  in  number,  represented  the  tenth  school 
year  or  the  first  in  the  normal  school.  Part  of  the  lesson 
was  devoted  to  a  class  exercise  in  drawing  from  solids,  the 
same  that  I  have  described  before.  When  that  was  con- 
cluded, the  teacher  ordered  the  students  to  turn  to  their 
individual  drawings.  Some  drew  from  plaster  casts,  some 
from  relief  ornaments,  some  from  plain  wooden  geometrical 
bodies,  some  even  turned  to  plain  copying  and  learning  to 
shade  with  the  stub. 


NORMAL  SCHOOL  FOR  YOUNG   LADIES.  155 

I  inquired  after  the  cause  of  this  variety.  The  answer 
was  characteristic  and  well  worth  recording :  "  The  gifts  of 
nature,  such  as  the  sense  of  form,  or  the  musical  ear,  or  the 
eye  for  color,  the  skill  in  working  out  forms  by  means  of 
modeling — in  fine,  all  those  talents  which  may,  perhaps,  be 
uniformly  developed  when  the  millennium  approaches — are 
not,  at  the  close  of  our  nineteenth  century,  as  yet  the  undis- 
puted common  property  of  everybody.  Much  variety  is  still 
noticeable.  Some  human  beings  are  far  more  gifted  than 
others  in  music  and  in  the  art  of  representing  form  on  the 
flat  surface.  Now,  it  would  retard  the  progress  of  many  of 
these  young  ladies  to  keep  them  back  in  order  to  keep  step 
with  their  less  gifted  sisters. 

"  So,  you  see,  I  divide  all  my  lessons  by  first  giving  class- 
instruction  in  the  course  in  drawing  they  will  be  called 
upon  to  give  to  little  children  after  some  years ;  but  when 
that  part  of  the  lesson  is  finished  I  give  each  student  wide 
elbow-room  to  turn  to  her  favorite  pursuit  in  art.  This  is 
never  without  the  most  gratifying  results,  as  you  may  see 
by  going  through  the  aisles.  You  will  have  noticed  that  I 
tied  the  students  down  to  a  rigid  performance  of  duty  so  far 
as  the  course  prescribed  is  involved ;  after  that  I  say,  let  them 
have  the  liberty  to  work  out  what  accomplishment  Mother 
Nature  has  given  them." 

This  was  common  sense,  decidedly.  That  it  was,  besides, 
obedience  to  the  pedagogical  maxim,  "  Individualize ! "  did 
not  decrease  the  value  of  the  common  sense  one  iota. 

During  a  lesson  in  physiology  sketches  of  the  circulatory 
system  were  drawn  on  the  board,  and  a  very  forcible  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  sketch  or  schematic  illustrations 
and  perspective  copies  from  nature.  I  append  a  few  sam- 
ples, which  will  illustrate  the  distinction.    (See  Figs.  165, 166.) 

Of  course,  the  heart  was  there  in  natura  also — that  is,  a 
perfect  preparation  of  papier-mache. 

The  last  lesson  I  heard  was  a  failure,  because  it  was  a 
lecture.  Lectures  are  out  of  place  in  a  young  ladies'  school. 
The  professor  was  a  very  learned  man,  but  a  poor  teacher. 


156 


BERLIN. 


His  subject  was  the  history  of  gymnastics.  The  young 
ladies  began  to  seek  diversion  in  whispering,  giggling,  and 
writing,  while  the  worthy  old  man  talked  louder  and  louder 


Figs.  165,  166. 

to  overcome  the  increasing  noise.  The  spectacle  became  so 
unpleasant  that  I  preferred  to  leave.  This  one  unpleasant 
experience  could  not,  however,  mar  the  deep  impression  I 
received  during  the  other  lessons.  I  had  spent  a  day  most 
profitably,  as  I  hope  to  have  proved  in  this  chapter. 

One  word  more:  English  and  French  are  taught  here, 
and  taught  well,  I  assure  my  readers.  Only,  the  English 
th  was  a  stumbling-block  to  some  of  the  pupils,  and  will 
perhaps  always  remain  so,  as  the  German  vowel  ue  (ii)  is  to 
Americans  and  Englishmen. 

11.    How  NOT  TO  TEACH. 

One  day  I  was  on  my  way  to  a  school  in  the  outskirts  of 
Berlin,  when,  riding  on  the  tramway,  I  espied  the  sign, 
"  Royal  Teachers'  Seminary."  On  the  previous  day  I  had 
inspected  a  similar  institution  for  young  ladies,  and  the  de- 
sire arose  to  see  this  one,  evidently  a  normal  school  for 
young  men.     A  comparison,  I  thought,  would  be  very  in- 


HOW  NOT  TO  TEACH.  157 

structive.  I  acted  upon  the  impulse  and  entered  the  build- 
ing. The  rector  received  me  kindly  and  handed  me  over  to 
the  next  in  command,  because  he  himself  had  to  leave  the 
building  to  conduct  an  examination  in  another  part  of  the 
city.  This  teacher  was  engaged  in  giving  a  lesson  in  church 
history.  I  thought  this  a  very  good  beginning,  and  was 
about  to  pat  myself  on  the  back  for  my  luck,  metaphorically 
speaking,  when,  lo !  I  abruptly  paused  in  my  self-congi^tu- 
lation,  for  the  teacher  was  a  scold  ! 

He  was  a  massive  man,  a  strong  man,  a  man  who  exer- 
cised a  power  of  command  which  might  have  been  better 
fitted  for  military  exercise  than  for  the  school-room.  He 
was  utterly  void  of  tact,  and  trampled  upon  the  children's 
dignity  as  though  his  massive  foot  stepped  upon  pebbles. 
He  made  his  importance  felt  so  severely  that  he  confused 
his  pupils.  He  intimidated  them  by  his  glance,  by  his  mode 
of  questioning,  and  his  seemingly  compassionate  smiles, 
which  seemed  to  imply,  "  I  know  you  can't  grasp  this,  but 
I'll  ask  you,  nevertheless,  to  make  you  feel  your  utter  worth- 
lessness."    His  reign  was  a  reign  of  terror. 

No  answer  was  left  without  severe  criticism,  and  every 
time  he  got  through  with  a  boy,  after  severely  squeezing 
him  (metaphorically  speaking),  and  ridiculing  him  when  oc- 
casion offered,  I  saw  the  boy  take  his  seat  with  a  woe-begone 
countenance  that  reminded  me  of  Lady  Jane  in  "  Patience," 
when  she  sighs,  "  Crushed  again ! "  When  the  substance  of 
the  answer  was  correct,  the  teacher  found  fault  with  its  form. 
When  the  form  was  correct,  but  the  answer  did  not  fully 
cover  the  subject  asked  for,  or  when  the  boy,  in  his  anguish, 
tried  to  branch  out  and  reach  over  as  much  ground  as  he 
could,  to  satisfy  the  teacher,  sarcastic  remarks  followed, 
which  were  positively  ugly.  The  boys,  on  an  average  about 
fourteen  or  fifteen  years  old,  resembled  so  many  sheep  in  a 
thunder-storm. 

But  mind  well,  my  patient  reader,  the  teacher  was  not 
coarse ;  not  a  nickname,  not  a  word  escaped  him  which  might 
have  been  interpreted  as  a  direct  insult.     But  his  manner  of 


158  BEKLIN. 

applying  reproof  was  so  icy,  so  penetrating,  so  chilling, 
and  the  reproof  was  given  for  such  trifling  things,  that  it 
took  my  breath  away.  There  was  not  a  word  of  commen- 
dation, not  a  look  of  approval  during  the  whole  lesson,  not 
one  friendly,  helpful  glance — it  appeared  as  though  the 
teacher  considered  it  beneath  himself  to  waste  such  things 
on  a  gang  of  criminals.  I  did  not  sketch  the  lesson.  My 
attention  was  entirely  absorbed  in  studying  how  not  to 
teach. 

It  wHl  ever  remain  true  that  we  are  apt  to  copy  our  own 
teachers  in  our  mode  of  teaching,  and  therefore  the  best 
teachers  and  educators  are  barely  good  enough  as  normal- 
school  teachers.  This  lesson  chilled  me  through  and 
through,  and  I  left  the  building.  From  other  teachers 
upon  very  cautious  and  veiled  inquiry,  I  heard  that  the  one 
I  had  listened  to  was  an  exception ;  but  I  can  not  help  pon- 
dering about  the  anomaly  that  a  man  of  his  caliber  should 
teach  the  religion  of  love,  Christianity.  He  certainly  acted 
like  a  veritable  Peter  Arbus  in  very  transparent  disguise. 
I  am  happy  to  say  I  did  not  find  another  specimen  of  a  cruel 
scold  like  this  one  during  all  my  visits  in  the  schools  of 
Berlin  or  elsewhere,  but  I  insert  this  description  to  point 
out  a  glaring  contrast. 

12.  "Naturkunde" — Knowledge  of  Nature. 

"  The  world  do  move,"  so  the  President  of  the  Lime-Kiln 
Club  says,  not  to  mention  a  more  illustrious  authority  for 
that  expression.  I  was  reminded  of  it  when  I  saw  here,  in 
Germany,  the  girls  in  the  communal,  or  people's  school, 
study  physics ;  here,  where  the  people  cling  stubbornly  to 
the  prejudice  that  women  need  not,  nay,  must  not,  rise  to 
the  lofty  realms  of  thought  in  science  and  art,  that  their 
sphere  precludes  scientific  pursuits,  etc.  (I  will  not  repeat 
the  threadbare  argument  which  American  women  have  so 
successfully  refuted  by  ocular  evidence.)  Yes,  "she  does 
move,"  thought  I,  when  listening  to  a  lesson  in  physics  in 
a  girls'  school  in  Berlin,  in  a  class  of  the  eighth  school  year. 


"NATURKUNDE"— KNOWLEDGE  OF  NATURE.        I59 

Electricity  was  the  subject,  and  the  method  pursued  by  the 
teacher  so  rational  that  I  resolved  to  sketch  it. 

The  school  was  well  provided  with  apparatus.  A  little 
ball  of  elder  pith,  suspended  by  a  linen  thread  from  a  brass 
holder;  another  suspended  by  a  silk  thread;  a  gutta-percha 
rod  rubbed  with  a  woolen  cloth;  a  glass  rod  rubbed  with  a 
silk  cloth — were  the  first  objects  viewed  and  used  in  experi- 
menting. 

After  each  part  of  the  apparatus  was  well  understood, 
the  teacher  took  the  gutta-percha  rod,  rubbed  it,  and  ap- 
proached the  little  ball  on  a  silk  thread  without  touching 
it ;  after  that,  the  one  on  a  linen  thread.  The  girls  put  in 
words  their  observations,  by  simply  stating  the  facts  ob- 
served. Then  the  teacher  took  the  glass  rod,  rubbed  it,  ap- 
proached the  balls,  one  after  another,  and  again  the  girls 
simply  but  correctly  staited  what  they  had  observed.  The 
little  balls  acted  very  differently.  So  far,  in  short  steps,  the 
lesson  had  progressed,  when  some  of  the  girls  were  about  to 
jump  at  conclusions.  But  the  teacher  cautioned  them  not 
to  do  so,  but  await  the  results  of  further  exjjeriments. 

Again  he  rubbed  rod  No.  1,  and  this  time  touched  the 
little  balls.  The  results  observed  made  those  girls  who  had 
worn  a  Arictorious  smile  on  their  faces,  as  though  they  had  dis- 
covered the  reason  of  the  ball's  action,  lean  back  with  knitted 
brows.  The  observations  were  again  clearly  stated.  Now 
the  rod  No.  2  was  used  in  a  similar  manner,  and  the  opposite 
results  were  attained.  Then  all  the  eight  different  phenom- 
ena were  once  more  repeated  in  quick  succession,  and  the 
teacher  summarized  them,  and  after  that "  submitted  the  case 
to  the  jury." 

An  insignificant-looking  specimen  of  homo  sapiens  fe- 
minini  generis,  but  with  a  pair  of  eyes  that  seemed  to  be 
able  to  look  outwardly  and  inwardly,  then  said :  "  The  fact 
that  the  same  rod  acts  differently  upon  the  two  balls  can  only 
be  explained  by  the  difference  of  connection  between  the 
balls  and  the  holder.  In  other  woi*ds,  the  electricity  issuing 
from  the  rods,  and  seeking  its  way  through  the  balls  to  the 
12 


160  BERLIN. 

brass  holder,  finds  a  conductor  in  one  of  the  strings  and  a 
non-conductor  in  the  other  thread.  Hence  the  opposite  ac- 
tions of  the  balls." 

Space  forbids  to  go  into  further  details,  save  to  say  that 
the  fact  of  positive  and  negative  electricity,  also  that  elec- 
tricity acts  on  the  surface,  not  inside  of  bodies,  and  other 
facts,  were  well  established  at  the  close  of  the  lesson.  I  must 
not  forget  to  state  that  the  teacher  showed  great  presence  of 
mind  when  at  one  stage  of  the  lesson  an  experiment  failed, 
to  wit,  one  of  the  balls  remained  indifferent  instead  of  being 
attracted.  He  candidly  stated  that  he  was  nonplused,  and 
proceeded  to  examine  the  apparatus.  Seeing  the  brass  rod  of 
the  holder  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  dust,  he  quickly  pol- 
ished it,  and  tried  the  experiment  again,  this  time  success- 
fully. A  few  remarks  concerning  the  evil  influence  of  dust 
impressed  themselves  upon  the  girls'  memories.  The  class 
was  large,  but  all  the  pupils  participated  and  were  frequently 
called  to  repeat  statements  of  observations  or  experiments 
made  before  their  eyes. 

I  inquired  what  difference,  if  any,  the  teacher  noticed  in 
teaching  science  to  girls  and  to  boys.  The  answer  was :  ''  The 
girls  are  much  quicker  in  coming  to  conclusions  than  the 
boys.  They  almost  jump  at  them,  and  do  not  sufficiently 
investigate  facts.  The  boys  arrive  more  slowly  at  conclu- 
sions; they  insist  upon  trying  various  experiments  before 
they  form  a  judgment.  Another  very  decided  difference  is, 
that  girls  forget  scientific  facts  sooner  than  boys.  It  seems 
as  though  the  boys'  power  of  retention  is  greater.  And  a 
third  (to  me  the  most  vital  and  significant)  difference  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  difficult  to  retain  the  girls'  attention 
long.  They  get  tired  much  too  soon.  While  the  boys  can 
hold  out  a  solid  hour  in  physics  without  getting  mentally 
exhausted,  I  am  obliged  to  branch  off  into  some  different 
subject  to  offer  the  girls  a  distraction  from  the  severe  strain 
of  continuous  thought." 

I  offer  these  statements  as  they  were  given  to  me.  Since 
they  come  from  a  highly  successful  teacher,  one  who  has 


A  LESSON  IN  SINGING.  161 

been  rector  of  both  a  boys'  and  a  girls'  school  for  many 
years,  his  words  ought  to  have  some  weight. 

13,  A  Lesson  m  Singing. 

A  lesson  in  vocal  music  that  I  heard  in  one  of  the  commu- 
nal schools  of  Berlin  very  vividly  impressed  itself  upon  my 
mind.  During  the  recess  between  two  lessons,  while  pi-ome- 
nading  with  the  rector  in  the  corridor,  I  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  a  young  man  of  great  promise.  I  took  a  liking  to 
him,  and  followed  him  into  the  class-room,  where  at  the 
stroke  of  the  bell  two  classes  of  girls  filed  in  to  take  a  sing- 
ing-lesson. The  teacher  offered  me  the  choice  between 
practicing  songs  that  had  been  studied,  and  the  study  of  a 
new  song.  I  chose  the  latter  offer,  and  was  well  rewarded, 
for  what  I  heard  was  a  model  lesson.  The  rector  selected  a 
song  from  a  book  not  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils — a  song 
which  was  strange  to  the  pupils  and  strange  to  me. 

As  quickly  as  ]X)ssible  the  teacher  copied  the  soprano 
part  on  the  board  which  was  ruled  for  music,  and  had  this 
part  road  by  the  whole  class.  The  pupils  read  D,  F  sharp, 
G,  A,  A,  A,  etc.,  then  sang  the  notes  thus.  The  length  of 
the  notes  was  then  marked,  and  the  pupils  beat  time.  Now 
the  words  were  substituted,  and  suitable  places  for  breathing 
were  marked.  Again  a  halt  was  made,  and  signs  of  expres- 
sion were  called  for  where  the  pupils  thought  fit  to  place 
them.  Thus  the  whole  melody  was  treated.  All  the  pupils 
sang  the  melody,  and  the  teacher,  being  rather  a  fine  violin- 
ist without  being  a  professional  musician,  played  the  second 
or  alto  part,  thus  accustoming  the  ear  of  his  pupils  to  the 
harmony. 

Now  the  alto  part  was  written,  and  the  class  called  upon 
to  practice  a  few  intervals,  such  as  from  the  second  to  the 
fifth  tone  of  the  scale,  etc.  When  these  preliminary  exercises 
were  finished,  the  part  was  sung  without  the  leading  melody. 
Though  the  part  was  not  without  difficult  passages,  the  class 
sang  through  it  bravely.  Now  it  was  repeated,  and  the 
vioUn  took  up  the  melody.     This  made  the  alto  singing 


162  BERLIN. 

easier.  The  pupils  were  seated  in  three  groups — soprano, 
alto,  and  second  alto.  (Perhaps  we  might  call  them  upper 
and  lower  soprano  and  alto.) 

Now  the  order  came  for  the  soprano  voices  to  sing  their 
part  and  the  alto  voices  theirs,  while  the  violin  played  the 
third  part.  It  was  interesting  to  see  the  girls  who  were  to 
sing  the  third  part  attend  closely  to  catch  the  run  of  their 
part  which  was  not  written  yet.  This  was  written  last,  it  was 
easy,  and  offered  no  difficult  intervals.  The  signs  of  expres- 
sion had  to  be  the  same  in  all  three  parts ;  and  after  the  third 
part  had  been  read  and  tried  aloud,  the  three  parts  were  sung 
together.  The  song  was  rendered  charmingly  and  without 
the  least  error.     Time  of  lesson,  thirty-five  minutes. 

Many  questions  on  the  theory  of  music,  on  the  length  of 
the  notes,  on  signs  of  expression,  on  time,  on  signature,  on 
keys,  etc.,  now  followed,  and  I  was  highly  pleased  with  the 
results,  for  the  pupils  revealed  considerable  familiarity  with 
written  music.  The  age  of  the  pupils  was  twelve  to  thirteen 
years,  the  class  being  on  a  level  with  our  intermediate  or 
grammar  grade.  At  the  close  of  the  hour  a  few  songs 
previously  learned  were  sung.  It  was  three-part  music 
throughout,  and  well  rendei*ed.  The  expression  was  fine, 
the  harmony  exquisite,  and  it  seemed  as  though  the  pupils 
vied  with  the  teacher  in  producing  something  that  was 
worth  hearing.  What  pleased  my  rather  fastidious  musical 
ear  were  the  beautiful  crescendos  and  diminuendos;  the 
voices  swelled  so  evenly  and  gradually  from  the  gentlest 
piatio  to  a  strong  forte,  and  again  decreased  to  mezzoforte 
or  pianissimo,  that  I  could  have  listened  all  day.  What 
a  source  of  musical  wealth  their  school  must  be  to  these  chil- 
dren I    And  how  they  hung  on  the  lips  of  their  teacher ! 

14.  A  Lessojt  in  Zoology. 

It  was  in  the  same  school  that  I  heard  a  lesson  in  "  de- 
scription of  nature  "  (not  to  call  it  zoology),  which  was  very 
pleasing.  I  will  endeavor  to  give  the  gist  of  it.  It  proved 
to  me  beyond  controversy  that,  while  in  English  and  Ameri- 


A  LESSON  IN  ZOOLOGY.  163 

can  schools  much  valuable  time  is  spent  in  learning  the 
fabric  of  the  garment  of  thought,  the  English  language 
(spelling,  grammar,  etc.),  these  German  children  get  more 
substance  of  thought.  While  we,  perhaps  driven  by  the 
nature  of  our  language,  are  making  our  pupils  think  about 
the  language,  the  Grerman  children  think  in  their  language. 
They  gain  more  knowledge,  useful,  practical  knowledge  in 
physics,  physiology,  hygiene,  natural  history,  history  of 
man,  geogi-aphy,  etc.,  than  we  can  offer  our  pupils.  In 
sketching  the  lesson  I  must  confine  myself  to  the  essentials 
as  I  noted  them  down.  Subject,  "The  Whale."  A  large 
picture  of  a  whale  was  placed  before  the  class. 

After  a  description  that  was  partly  deduced  from  previous 
knowledge  and  from  the  picture  before  the  class,  the  teacher 
entered  upon  a  more  instructive  part  of  the  lesson  by  pro- 
posing, where  occasion  offered,  questions  about  cause  and 
effect. 

"  How  does  it  come  so,"  he  asked,  "  that  the  animal  emits 
vapor  through  its  nostrils,  and  not  streams  of  water  ? " 

"  What  is  the  most  vital  difference  between  the  tail  of 
the  whale  and  that  of  fishes  ? "  The  answer,  that  "  its  posi- 
tion is  horizontal  instead  of  vertical,"  led  to  the  other  ques- 
tion : 

"  Have  we  an  example  of  horizontal  rudders  on  our  lx)ats 
or  skiffs  ? "  The  boys  all  agreed  that  a  boat's  rudder  must  be 
vertical.  Then  the  question  came,  "  Who  knows  what  is 
meant  by  sculling  a  skiff  or  canoe  ?  "  Up  went  two  hands 
of  boys,  who  described  the  use  of  an  oar  both  as  propeller 
and  rudder. 

The  teeth  of  the  whale,  especially  their  fringe,  puzzled  the 
children.  They  saw  that,  if  their  own  teeth  were  as  soft  as 
felt  on  the  edges,  they  could  not  last.  It  was  soon  decided 
that  the  animal  does  not  use  its  teeth  to  bite  with,  but  as  a 
sieve.  The  teacher  then  explained — what  could  not  well 
be  seen  on  the  picture — that  the  animal  turns  these  "  teeth- 
bones  "  on  their  axes  after  preparing  to  swallow.  He 
showed  this  by  turning  three  rulei-s,  which  were  first  held 


164: 


BERLIN. 


Fig.  167 


■with,  the  edges  toward  the  class,  so  that  the  hroad  sides 
were  seen.  Thus  the  teacher  taught  objectively  without 
ostentation.  He  seemed  to  dis- 
cover means  for  appealing  to  the 
senses  where  others  could  not  use 
anything  but  the  word  of  mouth. 
A  simple  gesture  of  his  often  suf- 
ficed to  make  things  clear. 

When  the  whaling  or  whale- 
hunting  was  described,  the  ques- 
tion, "  Why  are  the  whalers  sure 
^^^  of  catching  their  prey,  if  a  single 
harpoon  has  struck  ?  "  led  to  a  vi- 
tal difference  between  whale  and  fish,  namely,  the  organ  of 
respiration.  The  existence  of  parasites  on  the  skin  of  the 
whale  led  to  the  question  why  the  animal  permits  them  to 
grow  and  lodge  in  his  skin.  This  was  a  poser.  At  last  a 
pupil  said  :  "  I  can  understand  that  monkeys  can  pick  off 
their  parasites  ;  that  birds  can  free  themselves  of  them  by 
means  of  their  beaks  ;  that  a  buffalo  or  a  dog  can  rub  him- 
self on  the  bark  of  a  tree  or  other  suitable  object  ;  but  I  fail 
to  see  what  the  unwieldy  whale  should  do,  having  neither 
hands  nor  beak  to  pick  off  his  parasites,  nor  any  hard  sub- 
stance in  the  sea  on  which  he  might  rub  himself." 

Thus  the  lesson  went  on — a  lesson  which  furnished 
knowledge  and  awakened  thought.  It  wound  up  with  a 
neat  description  of  the  animal's  mode  of  life,  thus  : 

The  home  of  the  whale  is  in  the  northern  seas,  where  they 
are  free  of  ice.  Where  the  ocean  offers  food  in  abundance 
they  can  be  found  in  great  numbers  like  herds  of  cattle. 
Now  they  dive  to  considerable  depths,  and  there  move  in 
quiet  majesty,  like  huge  ship-hulls,  and  soon  after  appear  on 
the  surface,  "  sailing  "  with  the  velocity  of  steamers.  Now 
they  play  like  merry  giants'  children,  rear  like  horses  or 
make  somersaults  and  stretch  their  tails  out  of  the  water,  or 
whip  the  water  with  their  tails  till  the  surface  is  covered 
all  around  them  with  white  foam,  and  again  float  as  though 


■      A  MOST  REFRESHING  SIGHT.  165 

dead  on  the  surface,  and  permit  water-birds  to  alight  on 
them. 

It  was  a  fruitful  lesson — fruitful  in  many  ways  to  the 
pupils.  The  harvest  of  language  was  rich,  the  exercise  of 
judgment  in  discovering  the  why  and  wherefore  of  things 
very  lively.  Altogether  the  lesson  was  a  proof  of  the  fact 
that  a  good  teacher  is  not  made  but  bom. 

15.  A  Most  Refreshing  Sight. 

Berlin  is  a  big  city,  no  doubt  my  readers  know  that ;  but 
its  size  became  very  obvious  to  me  one  day,  when  I  attended 
a  meeting  of  the  teachers  of  Section  III.  Berlin  is  divided 
into  several  (I  believe,  seven)  school  sections,  each  of  which 
has  a  section  superintendent,  called  inspector,  while  the  gen- 
eral superintendent,  called  Schulrath,  is  the  general-in-chief. 
The  rectors,  associate  and  assistant  teachers  of  this  section 
— some  two  to  three  hundred  in  number — had  a  conference 
in  the  session-room  of  the  one  hundred  and  seventh  commu- 
nal school.  The  hall  was  magnificent,  lofty,  spacious,  well 
warmed  and  ventilated,  and  exquisitely  decorated  with  fresco, 
paintings,  marble  and  plaster  busts,  and  carved  wood.  It 
was  very  obvious  that  I  was  in  the  capital  of  the  German 
Empire,  in  a  city  which  is  known  for  its  inexhaustible  col- 
lections of  art.  An  art-loving  community  like  that  of  Berlin 
can  not  leave  the  schools  of  the  children  unadorned,  and  if 
we  consider  that  many  children  attending  the  lower  schools 
never  see  a  beautiful  room — unless  it  be  in  school — it  seems 
like  investing  money  well  to  decorate  the  school-rooms. 
Esthetic  education  is  not  the  result  of  teaching,  but  of 
impressions. 

The  hundreds  of  teachers  present  on  this  occasion  (I  am 
sorry  to  say  there  were  no  women  among  them)  were  a  fine 
body  of  men,  indeed,  I  rarely,  if  ever,  saw  so  many  fine  heads 
assembled  as  I  did  here.  I  had  an  opportunity  to  see  the 
Reichstag  (German  Congress)  assembled  a  few  days  after- 
ward, and  I  was  somewhat  disappointed.  Venerable  as 
many  of  its  members  were,  I  could  not  help  seeing  that  as 


166  BERLIN. 

far  as  intelligence,  ready  wit,  oratory,  and  parliamentary 
skill  were  concerned,  the  teachers  of  Section  III  surpassed 
the  members  of  the  Reichstag.  The  inspector  of  this  section 
took  the  chair,  and  conducted  the  discussion  in  a  very  com- 
mendable way. 

The  subject  of  the  day  was  Efforts  in  reforming  Instruc- 
tion in  Natural  History.  And  again,  as  I  had  noticed  in 
Rhenish  Prussia  and  Westphalia,  the  battle  raged  about  Her- 
bart  pro  and  contra.  Though  the  name  Herbart  was  not 
once  mentioned,  it  was  obvious  to  me  that  the  views  of  the 
two  authorities — Pestalozzi  and  Herbart — were  at  the  bottom 
of  the  whole  commotion.  It  may  seem  presumptuous  to 
render  in  English  the  theses  which  were  discussed,  but,  since 
they  offer  in  synopsis  the  course  of  the  whole  discussion,  I 
will  give  them.     So  here  are  the  theses : 

I.  In  the  study  commonly  called  natural  history  our  ob- 
ject should  be  to  lead  the  pupils  to  a  better  comprehension 
of  life  in  nature. 

II.  The  present  status  of  science  should  be  considered,  in 
which  the  system  is  not  the  main  point,  but  the  train  of 
changes  which  culminated  in  the  present  artificial  systems 
of  classification.  It  can  not  be  urged  too  strongly  that  we 
must  not  go  beyond  the  pupil's  faculty  of  comprehension. 

III.  Direct  observation  of  life  in  nature,  both  in  botany 
and  zoology,  must  take  the  place  of  description  of  absent  ob- 
jects. To  this  end  class-excursions  into  the  country  should 
be  arranged,  work  in  the  school-garden  and  lessons  in  ob- 
servation alternate  with  excursions. 

IV.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  have  the  physiological  organs 
of  natural  objects  named.  Of  greater  importance  is  the  re- 
lation between  the  organs  and  their  functions. 

V.  In  order  to  get  a  clear  insight  into  the  life  and  growth 
of  plants  and  animals,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  and  discuss 
their  characteristic  momenta.  Dead  specimens  may  afford 
opportunities  for  description  and  study  of  forms,  but  they 
offer  no  chance  for  seeing  the  organs  in  action. 

VI.  The  influence  which  the  surroundings  have  upon 


A  MOST   REFRESHING  SIGHT.  167 

the  peculiar  development  of  the  object  in  life  should  be  em- 
phasized so  far  as  the  children  can  comprehend  it.  This  can 
best  be  studied  during  excursions. 

VII.  Instruction  in  natural  history  has  also  a  practical 
object,  to  wit,  to  prove  the  importance  of  natural  objects  to 
man  in  commerce,  in  industry,  or  as  food  and  ornament. 
This  should  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  objects  for  study. 

VIII.  In  higher  instruction  this  elementary  observation 
of  forms,  organs,  and  their  functions  should  terminate  in 
systematic  grouping  and  the  observation  of  phenomena  in 
formulating  biological  laws. 

The  young  teacher  who  was  the  chief  speaker  read  a 
paper  first  in  which  he  defended  these  theses.  He  opened 
the  discussion  formally.  For  three  hours  opinions,  couched 
in  short,  five-minute  speeches,  followed  each  other,  and  the 
chairman  selected  the  speakers  always  with  a  view  toward 
fairly  dividing  the  time  between  the  pro  and  contra  sides. 

The  whole  discussion  was  based  upon  a  work  of  recent 
publication  called  "  The  Village  Pond ''  (by  Fr.  Junge,  pub- 
lished by  Lipsius  &  Fischer  in  Kiel).  Humboldt  once  said, 
"  Nature  is  reflected  in  every  corner,"  and  the  village  pond 
was  considered  by  the  author  the  most  convenient  corner  to 
study  nature.  Botany,  zoology,  and  mineralogy  are  studied 
while  studying  the  phenomena  observable  in  and  about  that 
pond.  It  is  a  wonderful  book,  quite  in  harmony  with  the 
teaching  of  Herbart — a  book  which  has  created  a  sensation 
among  the  teachers  of  Germany  such  as  can  only  be  com- 
pared to  the  sensation  created  by  Pestalozzi's  "  Wie  Gertrude 
ihre  Kinder  lehrt."  If  I  had  the  time  at  present  I  should 
translate  the  book  for  my  American  colleagues;  but  I  ap- 
prehend that  when  I  return  home  to  settle  down  again  I 
shall  find  it  on  the  market  in  America  in  English  garb.  It 
is  altogether  a  sensible  book,  one  which  is  destined  to  mark 
an  epoch  in  science-teaching. 

A  few  more  remarks  about  the  discussion.  In  all  the 
many  addresses  and  impromptu  speeches  of  the  day  there 
was  not  an  unpleasant  word  said  directed  at  any  one  in  par- 


168  BERLIN. 

ticular,  not  a  breath  of  suspicion  as  to  the  motives  of  any 
speaker,  nor  an  allusion  which  might  in  any  way  have  been 
interpreted  as  containing  a  sting.  All  criticism  (and  there 
was  much  of  it,  and  severe  criticism  to  boot)  hit  the  system 
or  the  method  in  vogue,  never  the  person.  All  evidences 
given  in  support  of  ideas  and  opinions  were  well  selected 
from  personal  experiences,  and  when  at  last  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  work  out  a  plan  for  applying  the  princi- 
ples and  practice  of  Junge  in  city  schools,  the  work  of  the 
day  left  no  bitter  feeling — not  often  the  case  after  a  heated 
debate.  No  little  of  the  success  of  the  day  was  owing  to  the 
masterly  directive  action  of  the  chairman,  who  was  what 
every  presiding  officer  should  be — a  true  moderator,  not  a 
despot. 

I  had  had  the  impression  that  parliamentary  rules  were 
nowhere  better  understood  and  applied  than  in  our  land  of 
parliamentary  government ;  but  I  have  had  several  occa- 
sions to  modify  my  judgment  concerning  that  point.  The 
presiding  officers  of  several  meetings  I  attended  had  a  knack 
of  disentangling  conflicting  questions,  laying  motions  before 
the  assemblies,  and  a  simplicity  in  deciding  and  taking  votes, 
which  fairly  astonished  me  and  would  have  graced  a  legis- 
lative body  in  America.  Time  was  when  parliamentary 
usage  was  very  rarely  found  in  Germany ;  but  the  granting 
of  universal  sufPrage  has  set  into  activity  latent  parliament- 
ary talents  which  are  not  to  be  despised. 

When  the  conference  closed  we  repaired  to  a  fashionable 
restaurant,  where  a  commodious  hall  was  reserved  for  us  for 
a  banquet.  Think  of  this  body  of  men  on  a  Saturday  even- 
ing, after  a  heated  debate,  peacefully  enjoying  themselves 
with  songs,  toasts,  and  something  for  the  inner  man!  A 
chorus  of  select  voices  rendered  fine  vocal  music.  The  words 
of  the  songs  that  were  to  be  sung  by  the  wliole  assembly 
were  passed  around  on  printed  slips.  They  had  been  com- 
posed "especially  for  the  occasion,"  and  were  full  of  happy 
allusions  to  the  events  of  the  day.  The  toasts  were  good,  and 
joy  reigned  supreme  till  the  small  hours. 


A  DISTINCTION  WITH  A  BIG  DIFFERENCE.  1(J9 

16.  A  Distinction  with  a  Big  Difference. 

Generally  I  prefer  to  visit  the  so-called  people's  schools 
here  in  Germany,  because  it  is  more  probable  that  in  them  I 
can  pick  up  suggestions  of  value  to  our  American  common 
schools.  The  gymnasiums  and  other  secondary  schools  par- 
take more  of  the  nature  of  colleges  and  special  schools.  The 
instniction  offered  in  them  is  more  scientific,  the  courses  of 
study  much  more  rigid,  and  the  schools  as  such  too  exclu- 
sive to  suit  my  taste.  Still,  for  the  sake  of  proper  compari- 
son, I  go  to  see  higher  schools  in  every  city  in  which  I  stay 
longer  than  a  day  or  two. 

The  general  impression  I  received  in  these  higher  schools 
is  not  a  very  favorable  one.  I  find  much  more  inferior 
teaching  in  them  than  in  the  common  schools ;  but  let  me 
not  be  misunderstood.  The  teaching  would  be  very  good 
for  mature  minds  who  can  and  are  willing  to  follow  the 
lecturing  teacher  with  undivided  attention.  The  instruc- 
tion, be  it  demonstrative  or  not,  is  almost  always  addressed 
to  the  best  and  brightest  pupils.  Weaker  ones  are  merely 
dragged  along  and  go  to  the  wall  when  the  annual  reckon- 
ing takes  place. 

This  is  one  of  the  causes  why  tlie  higher  schools  have  the 
dropsy  in  the  lowest  and  the  consumption  in  the  highest 
grades.  To  see  one  or  two  graduates  in  a  school  of  six  or 
eight  grades  (from  the  tenth  to  the  nineteenth  year  of  age), 
with  an  enrollment  of  four  to  five  hundred,  is  not  a  rare 
case  at  all.  It  does  not  seem  the  object  of  the  faculty  to  do 
the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number,  but  to  prepare  a 
selected  few  for  the  next  higher  grades  and  suffer  the  re- 
mainder to  stay  and  "  try  again  "  or  drop  out  of  school.  No- 
where is  Darwin's  theory  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  more 
forcibly  illustrated  than  in  German  secondary  schools.  I 
am  aware  that  this  is  very  harsh  criticism,  but  it  is  based 
upon  "  ocular  inspection  "  and  several  private  conversations 
with  noted  school-men,  who  agree  with  me  both  as  to  the 
fact  and  its  causes. 


170  BERLIN. 

They  are  not  reticent  about  this  weakness  of  the  system, 
but  speak  without  reserve.  One  gentleman  of  national  rep- 
utation said,  when  I  mentioned  this  anomaly:  "It  is  only 
too  true  that  the  improvement  in  didactic  practice  in  the 
higher  schools  does  not  keep  step  with  that  of  the  lower 
schools.  The  state  requires  the  teachers  of  the  lower  schools 
to  have  attended  a  normal  school,  while  those  of  the  second- 
ary schools  are  raw  university  men  who  may  have  learned 
much  but  do  not  know  how  to  teach. 

"  A  normal  school  graduate  may  not  know  so  much  of 
the  sciences  of  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  philology, 
archaeology,  history,  etc.,  but  he  knows  how  to  apply  what 
he  did  learn,  and,  what  is  of  still  greater  value,  he  has 
learned  by  actual  practice  in  the  school-room  how  to  disci- 
pline and  educate,  not  merely  how  to  teach.  Many  a  young 
university  man  addresses  his  immature  pupils  a.s  though 
they  were  college  students.  He  can  not  stoop  to  their  level 
of  comprehension,  and  it  is  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber of  these  candidates  who  ever  get  to  be  good  teachers. 
Do  you  know,  I  invariably  send  my  young  university  men 
to  some  renowned  teacher  in  the  people's  school  that  they 
may  observe  how  to  teach  methodically  before  I  intrust  a 
class  to  their  care  ?  " 

Now,  much  of  what  this  good  man  said  is  applicable  to 
American  college  graduates,  I  thought.  Here  in  Germany 
it  is  fashionable  to  send  the  boys  fo  a  secondary  school 
instead  of  allowing  them  to  mix  with  "  the  rabble."  So 
long  as  social  distinctions  are  as  high  here  as  they  are,  it 
will  be  considered  a  privilege  to  attend  a  gymnasium,  or  a 
Realschule,  or  a  Biirger  Schule,  and,  to  be  sure,  it  is  a  dis- 
tinction with  a  big  difference. 

Before  I  close  this  criticism,  I  wish  to  have  it  dirjtinctly 
understood  that  I  do  not  mean  to  say  there  are  no  good,  ex- 
cellent teachers  in  the  secondary  schools.  I  am  far  from 
saying  that,  for  I  have  witnessed  lessons  in  such  schools  that 
were  model  lessons  in  every  way;  but  I  mean  to  say  the 
good  teachers  are  fewer  in  number  there  absolutely  and  rela- 


A  RARE  CASE.  171 

tively  than  in  the  people's  schools.  I  mean  to  emphasize 
also  that  there  is  too  much  waste  of  good  material  and  the 
number  of  graduates  in  disproportion  to  the  number  of  pu- 
pils entering  secondary  schools. 

Furthermore,  I  maintain  it  to  be  a  lamentable  en*or  to 
allow  the  pupils  to  begin  a  number  of  higher  studies  and 
languages  without  ever  being  able  to  make  any  headway  in 
them  when  they  could  obtain  a  well-rounded  elementary 
education  in  the  people's  school  which  would  fit  them  for 
life  much  better  than  that  half-and-half  education  which 
offers  a  little  of  everything  and  nothing  of  anything.  The 
secondary  schools  in  Germany  are  not  so  much  educational 
institutions  as  they  are  seats  of  learning.  Therein  lies  the 
distinction  and  the  difference. 

17.  A  Rare  Case. 

In  one  of  the  communal  schools  of  Berlin  I  confided  to 
the  rector  that  it  was  so  difficult  to  make  the  teachers  under- 
stand that  I  had  not  come  to  inspect  the  school  with  a  view 
toward  ascertaining  what  the  pupils  knew,  but  hotv  the 
teachers  taught.  He  was  not  astonished,  and  said :  "  We 
rarely  see  visitors  in  our  school.  When  an  inspector  or 
school  councilor  comes,  he  is  usually  bent  upon  examining 
into  results."  He  suggested  that  he  had  several  teachers 
whom  he  could  place  at  my  disposal.  He  introduced  me  to 
one  of  them  who  happened  to  enter  the  office  at  that  mo- 
ment. One  glance  at  him  convinced  me  of  his  genius.  The 
rector  asked  him :  "  Would  you  kindly  take  a  class  in  geog- 
raphy instead  of  Mr.  So-and-so  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  ? " 
"  Certainly,"  was  the  answer.  "  What  subject  shall  I  take  ? " 
"The  class  is  studying  the  map  of  Asia."  "Very  well." 
"  Or  would  you  mind  taking  my  class  in  physics  while  I 
take  the  other  class  ? "  "  With  pleasure.  What  is  the  class 
studying  ? "  "We  are  at  the  chapter  of  electricity."  "  That 
would  please  me  very  much." 

I  engaged  the  young  man  in  conversation  during  recess, 
and  found  he  had  a  perfect  sample  card  of  studies  on  his 


172  BERLIN. 

daily  programme.  He  taught  natural  history,  physics,  geog- 
raphy, history,  grammar,  gymnastics,  and  music,  and  the 
rector  confided  to  me  that  he  taught  all  these  branches  well. 
''  He  is  a  most  valuable  man  to  have  in  a  school,"  said  he. 
"  He  is  obliging,  always  ready  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  to 
jump  into  the  breach,  a  perfect  mine  of  information,  and  a 
most  accomplished  methodician.  Every  pupil  in  the  school 
likes  him.  Every  teacher  acknowledges  his  superiority. 
Young  as  he  is,  he  has  already  passed  the  examination  for  a 
rectorship,  and  I  am  seriously  afraid  I  shall  lose  him,  for 
the  authorities  will  soon  appoint  him  to  a  rectorship.  What 
a  power  he  might  be  in  a  secondary  school !  But,  then,  that 
is  out  of  the  question,  he  being  only — a  normal  graduate. 
Despite  his  profound  learning  he  has  something  child-like 
about  him.  He  can  play  with  the  boys  in  the  yard,  and 
laugh  and  romp  with  them  to  their  hearts'  content,  yet  in 
the  class-room  he  is  a  strict  disciplinarian.  He  much  resem- 
bles the  iron  hand  under  a  velvet  glove.  In  all  my  thirty 
years  of  experience  I  have  never  discovered  so  unmistakable 
a  born  teacher  as  he  is." 

Well,  I  saw  that  teacher  engaged  in  several  lessons  and 
owe  him  many  an  inspiration. 

18.  "Tout  comme  chez  nous." 

Cheating  in  examination.  The  "  Berlin  Gazette  "  recent- 
ly published  an  account  of  an  attempt  at  circumnavigating 
the  dangers  of  a  final  examination  which  deserves  to  be  re- 
printed in  America.  A  paper  one  day  contained  the  inno- 
cent advertisement : 

"  Wanted,  a  young  man  who  either  has  passed  the  final 
examination  in  a  gymnasium  or  is  about  to  go  through  the 
ordeal.  Wanted  for  an  innocent  purpose.  Employment 
for  two  or  three  weeks.  Salary,  seven  hundred  marks.  Ap- 
plications, accompanied  by  a  '  curriculum  vitce,''  to  be  sent 
to  this  office  addressed  to  A.  P.,  No.  101." 

A  student  of  the  university  in  Berlin  who  thought  the 
advertiser  needed  coaching  to  get  ready  for  his  examination, 


THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  HORIZON.  173 

applied  and  received  an  answer  of  the  following  purix)rt :  "  A 
certain  aristocratic  young  gentleman  who  intends  to  enter 
the  army  as  officer  is  required  to  pass  the  final  examination 
(which  is  a  sesame  for  hoth  the  university  and  the  army), 
but,  having  been  ill  for  some  years,  is  too  poorly  prepared, 
and  desires  to  find  a  substitute  who  will  under  an  assumed 
name  pass  the  examination  for  him.  This  is  done  easily,  no 
risk  whatever." 

In  order  to  catch  this  cheat,  the  student  entered  upon  his 
plan,  but  notified  the  public  prosecutor,  who  caused  the 
arrest  of  the  young  aristocrat  after  sufficient  proofs  were 
collected. 

Will  my  readers  have  a  moral  ?  It  is  this:  This  one  case 
has  made  a  profound  sensation  upon  the  people  of  Ger- 
many. They  ask  with  holy  hon-or  how  it  is  possible  to  con- 
ceive of  such  an  infernal  idea,  and  clamor  for  protection  to 
honest  students  by  prohibiting  the  admission  of  any  one  to 
the  final  examination  in  a  high-school  who  has  not  been  a 
student  in  that  school  for  a  yt  ar  at  least.  The  Germans  do 
not  hastily  legislate,  but,  when  they  do,  their  laws  go  str-aight 
to  the  root  of  evil. 

19.  Concentric  Extension  of  the  Geographical 
Horizon. 

It  is  always  attended  with  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  when 
one  observes  an  idea  consistently  carried  through  the  differ- 
ent stages  of  the  curriculum,  especially  if  that  consistency  is 
in  strict  compliance  with  educational  maxims  and  princi- 
ples. Here  in  Berlin  a  truly  refreshing  example  of  consist- 
ency is  offered  in  the  school-book  used  in  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy, which  book  is  an  atlas  pure  and  simple,  not  a  text- 
book. It  may  not  be  without  interest  to  read  an  account  of 
what  that  book  contains,  for  it  is  got  up  with  undeniable 
skill.  The  j^ader  must  kindly  bear  in  mind  that  the  atlas 
is  made  expressly  for  use  in  the  elementary  (or  communal) 
schools  of  Berlin.  The  idea  which  is  so  consistently  carried 
through  in  it  is  expressed  in  the  above  heading. 


174 


BERLIN 


Fio.  1C8. 


SCALE  <:ioo. 


0       >i       1  8  3  1  SSIeters 

Fia.  169.— Map-Plan  of  the  School-Room. 


THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  HORIZON.  175 

Page  1  contains  six  pictures  and  plans.  The  first  (Fig, 
168)  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  inside  of  a  school-room,  and 
side  by  side  with  it  is  a  map-plan  (Fig.  169)  of  that  room. 
This  is  nothing  new  in  America.  Many  American  text- 
books of  geography  contain  a  similar  illustration.  It  is  here 
reproduced  for  no  other  reason  than  to  present  an  unbroken 
chain  of  methodical  links.  Notice  that  the  atlas  does  not 
begin  with  the  hemispheres.  The  picture,  with  its  attendant, 
the  plan,  represents  the  first  circle  of  the  pupil's  geographical 
horizon,  and  is  drawn  on  a  scale  of  1  to  100. 

Then  follows  a  perspective  view  of  the  whole  school- 
house  (Fig.  170)  and  a  map-plan  of  the  building  (Fig.  171), 
These  form  the  second  circle.  Scale :  1  to  300.  The  bird's- 
eye  view  of  Fig,  171  is  certainly  an  ingenious  contriv- 
ance. 

This  is  followed  by  a  perspective  view  of  a  portion  of  a 
city  and  its  map-plan.  The  school-house  is  again  found  on 
this  map.  (See  Figs.  172  and  173.)  These  form  the  third 
circle  of  the  pupil's  horizon.     Scale:  1  to  1,500. 

Page  2  contains  a  larger  perspective  view  of  a  landscape, 
accompanied  by* a  map-plan.  The  artist  had  to  reduce  this 
view  to  adjust  it  to  the  size  of  the  page.  The  original  in  the 
atlas  is  much  larger.  The  reader  will  find  the  same  school- 
house  and  portion  of  the  town  represented  in  Figs.  170  and 
172.     This  forms  the  fourth  circle.     Scale :  1  to  7,500. 

Page  3.  This  extension  of  the  horizon  is  followed  on 
page  3  by  a  picture  of  an  imaginary  landscape  which  is  in- 
serted for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  most  vital  topo- 
graphical ideas.  This  picture  also  is  accompanied  by  a 
map-plan. 

Page  4  contains  a  minute  city  plan  of  Berlin,  which 
forms  the  fifth  circle  of  the  horizon.     Scale :  1  to  36,000. 

Page  5  is  Berlin  and  vicinity,  the  same  city  plan  but 
much  reduced  in  size  and  surrounded  by  the  many  villages, 
hamlets,  etc.,  within  a  radius  of  twelve  kilometres.  This 
forms  the  sixth  circle.     Scale :  1  to  100,000. 

Page  6  is  a  map  of  the  governmental  district  of  Potsdam, 
13 


''?5ii       '^: 


Fia.  171. 


Fig.  172. 


Fio.  173,— Map-Plan  of  School-House  and  Vicinity. 


178 


BERLIN. 


I  -^j  '''-\*t,'*^ 


**  -*'•  '<^   -U.-^ 


-l.^; 


:M.m,l: 


THE   GEOGRAPHICAL  HORIZON. 


179 


180  BERLIN. 

in  the  center  of  wliich  Berlin  is  situated,  this  being  the  sev- 
enth circle.     Scale:  1  to  1,000,000. 

Page  7  is  a  physical  map  of  the  province  of  Brandenburg 
(center  Berlin).  Eighth  circle  of  horizon.  Scale  of  map:  1 
to  1,260,000.  Map  contains  also  a  local  map  exhibiting  the 
railroads  entering  Berlin. 

Page  5  is  a  political  map  of  the  same  province.  Scale 
the  same.     Local  map  of  the  city  of  Potsdam. 

Page  9  is  a  physical  map  of  Germany.  Ninth  circle  of 
horizon.     Scale:  1  to  4,000,000. 

Page  10  is  a  political  map  of  Germany.  Same  circle, 
same  scale.     Local  map  of  the  Thuringian  principalities. 

Page  11  is  a  physical  map  of  Eurppe.  Tenth  circle  of 
horizon.     Scale :  1  to  15,000,000. 

Page  12  contains  the  political  map  of  Europe.  Same 
circle,  same  scale. 

Page  13  contains  the  map  of  Asia.    Scale :  1  to  50,000,000. 

Page  14  contains  the  map  of  Africa.  Scale :  1  to  40,000,- 
000.  Local  maps  of  the  Nile-Delta,  the  Cape  Colony,  and 
Cape  Town. 

Page  15  contains  the  map  of  North  America.  Scale  1  to 
35,000,000. 

Page  16  contains  the  map  of  South  America.  Same  scale. 

Page  17  contains  the  map  of  Australia  and  Oceanica  with 
local  map  of  Victoria  Land,  and  an  illustration  of  the  forma- 
tion of  coral  reefs.     Scale  of  main  map,  1  to  50,000,000. 

The  foregoing  five  maps  may  be  considered  the  eleventh 
circle. 

Page  18  is  again  a  local  map,  namely,  that  of  Palestine, 
a  map  which  is  very  useful  to  teachers  and  pupils  in  the 
study  of  biblical  history. 

Page  19  contains  the  twelfth  circle  of  geographical  hori 
zon,  namely  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

Page  20.  The  Western  Hemisphere.     Scale  not  stated. 

Page  21  directs  the  pupils'  look  upward  to  the  heavens.  It 
contains  a  representation  of  the  northern  sky,  with  the  most 
important  constellations  and  the  milky  way. 


THE   GEOGRAPHICAL  HORIZON.  181 

Page  22,  the  last  one  in  the  book,  is  devoted  to  mathe- 
matical geography.  It  contains  illustrations  of  the  eclipses, 
of  the  earth's  orbit,  the  solar  system,  the  phases  of  the  moon, 
and  various  very  useful  devices  of  similar  nature. 

The  whole  book  costs  a  mark,  or  twenty-five  cents,  which 
price  is  a  standing  reproach  to  our  publishers,  who  ask  a 
dollar  and  a  quarter  to  a  dollar  and  a  half  for  a  book  contain- 
ing on  an  average  not  any  more  maps  than  this  one  ;  for 
the  useless  ballast  which  makes  them  unwieldy  and  induces 
ignorant  teachers  to  make  presumptuous  prattlers  of  our 
pupils,  is  not  worth  the  paper  on  which  it  is  printed. 

These,  then,  are  the  contents  of  the  elementary  geography 
in  use  in  the  city  of  Berlin,  The  reader  will  perhaps  ad- 
vance objections  to  this,  that,  or  another  item ;  will  object, 
for  instance,  to  the  picture  of  the  quaint  city  (which  the  art- 
ist has  minutely  copied),  as  being  foreign  to  our  pupils'  sur- 
roundings. I  repeat,  for  his  benefit,  that  the  atlas  is  not 
made  for  American  children,  but  for  the  children  in  Berlin. 
I  should  think  it  might  be  possible  to  present  a  series  of  pict- 
ures and  accompanying  map-plans  which  could  be  used  in 
large  cities  such  as  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago. 

The  reader  may,  perhaps,  consider  it  somewhat  of  a 
strait- jacket  to  be  tied  down  to  such  a  course,  one  which 
will  not  give  the  precocious  child  a  chance  to  look  beyond 
the  "board  fence  of  the  circle."  To  him  it  may  be  said: 
There  is  no  objection  at  all  for  any  precocious  child  to  look 
at  the  next  pages  and  ask  questions  about  them,  but  the  reg- 
ular, methodical  course  is  here  prescribed  according  to  the 
principle  ''  From  the  near  to  the  remote."  If  he  desires  to 
deviate  from  the  course,  he  may  skip  a  few  pages,  and  return 
to  them  whenever  he  sees  fit. 

But  the  consistency  with  which  the  principles  of  education 
that  presuppose  concentric  growth  are  carried  out,  deserves 
commendation.  We  are  too  often  talking  of  principles  and 
shunning  to  apply  them.  Here  is  a  sample  of  that  consist- 
ency which  does  what  it  preaches.  Whether  we  like  it  or 
not,  we  may  at  least  be  just  and  find  it  praiseworthy  as  such. 


182         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

HALLE  {PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

1.  The  "Francke  Stiftungen"  m  Halle. 

I  MUST  refer  the  reader  to  the  history  of  education,  and 
ask  him  to  look  up  Francke,  and  to  read  what  lieroic  efforts 
he  made  in  charitable  institutions.  To-day — two  hundred 
years  after  he  began  to  look  about  for  means  to  establish  an 
orphan  asylum — a  small  city  looms  up  within  the  city  of 
Halle,  built  mostly  by  him  without  governmental  aid ;  and, 
though  he  has  been  dead  for  the  last  century  and  a  half,  his 
work  still  lives  and  thrives,  governed  by  almost  identically 
the  same  rules  which  Francke,  the  man  with  the  large  heart, 
and  active  sympathy  for  the  poor  and  needy,  laid  down. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  he  was  the  most  noted  benefactor  thf 
poor  in  Saxony  and,  in  fact,  all  Germany,  ever  had.  He 
had  no  millions  to  bequeath,  but,  on  the  contrary,  began  with 
seven  dollars.  According  to  a  report  of  1883,  issued  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Emperor  William,  who  during  that  year  vis- 
ited the  institution,  it  embraced  then  : 


9. 
10. 
11. 

12. 

13. 
14. 


A  boys'  elementary  Kchool , 

A  gfirls'  elementary  school 

A  boys'  intermediate  school 

A  ffirls'  intermediate  school 

A  boys'  preparatory  school 

A  Latin  school 

A  high  school  for  boys 

A  high  school  for  girls 

An  orphan  asylum  for  bovs 

An  orphan  asylum  for  girls , 

A  boarding  establishment  for  outside  pu 

pils  of  the  high  schools 

Same  for  students  of  the  Royal  Pedago 

gium 

A  normal  school  for  young  ladies 

A  "  Seminarium  Praeceptorum  " 


Founded 
in 

No.  of 

m  1883. 

1695 

221 

1695 

225 

1695 

584 

1695 

469 

1845 

239 

1695 

775 

1835 

4S4 

1835 

370 

1695 

115 

1695 

16 

1697 

285 

1696 

54 

1879 

23 

1696 

12 

No.  of  pu- 
pils since 
beginning 


9,300 

9,500 

23,000 

15,700 

1,743 

23,257 

6,400 

2,100 

5,276 

1,501 

10,000 

4,387 

88 

4,395 


THE  "FKANCKE  STIFTUNGEN"  IN  HALLE.  183 

Connected  with  the  institution — which,  is  in  fact,  a  small 
town  within  a  town — are  several  undertakings,  called  "  the 
money-making  additions,"  namely  :  ' 

(1)  A  Publishing  House,  founded  in  1698,  with  an  annual 
sale  of  200,000  marks  ;  (2)  a  Printing  House,  founded  in 
1701,  with  an  annual  earning  of  130,000  marks  ;  (3)  a  Drug- 
Store,  founded  in  1698,  with  an  annual  sale  of  45,000  marks ; 
(4)  a  Bible  House,  founded  in  1710,  with  a  capital  of  150,000 
mai'ks,  6,200,000  Bibles  have  been  sent  out  since  1710 ;  (5)  an 
East  India  Mission,  founded  in  1705,  with  a  capital  of  246,- 
900  marks  ;  (6)  the  "  Streit  Fund,"  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
porting German  Protestant  congregations  in  Pennsylvania, 
founded  in  1755,  with  a  capital  of  29,900  marks. 

The  entire  institution  embraces  seventy-five  acres  of  land, 
of  which  seventeen  acres  are  covered  with  buildings.  The 
buildings  are  insured  against  fire  to  the  amount  of  one  mill- 
ion and  a  quarter  marks. 

The  reader  may  think  these  statements  out  of  place  in  a 
book  like  this.  I  insert  them  to  show  that  a  spirit  which 
succeeded  in  erecting,  independently  of  state  aid,  such  a 
grand  and  imposing  temple  of  charity,  finds  its  expression 
in  independent  educational  enterprise.  In  our  age  of  asso- 
ciated charities,  the  original  intention  of  gathering  the  or- 
phans of  the  realm  has  become  too  narrow.  The  institution 
has  become  the  center  of  all  efforts  of  reform  in  school  edu- 
cation in  Germany — an  experimental  colony,  so  to  speak. 
For  it  is  not  dependent  upon  the  state  funds  or  taxes,  and  is 
therefore  not  governed  by  rules  and  regulations  issued  from 
the  governmental  green-table,  but  has  its  own  director,  who 
thinks  it  quite  in  harmony  with  Francke's  principles  and 
charitable  intentions  to  make  these  schools  the  pioneer 
schools  of  Germany. 

Director  Dr.  Otto  Frick,  since  Prof.  Ziller's  death  the 
foremost  leader  of  the  Herbartian  school,  advocates  Her- 
bart's  principles  and  Ziller's  practice,  and  selects  his  teachers 
exclusively  with  reference  to  their  fitness  to  teach  and  edu- 
cate.    He  is  not  tied  down  by  narrow  courses  of  study  and 


184:         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE   OF  SAXONY). 

regulations,  nor  are  his  tongue  and  pen  tied  by  considera- 
tions of  state  reason  or  bread-and-butter  interest.  Conse- 
quently he  is,  to  state  the  situation  metaphorically,  "  the  best- 
hated  pedagogue  of  Prussia,  a  vigorous  pike  in  a  carp-pond." 

I  spent  several  days  in  this  "  city  within  a  city,"  and 
more  than  once  sat  in  speechless  admiration  at  the  manner 
of  teaching  and  the  results  I  witnessed.  Of  course,  I  was  to 
some  extent,  prepared  for  what  I  saw ;  but  when  I  noticed 
the  absence  of  that  rigorous  discipline  under  which  other 
schools  suffer  ;  when  I  saw  the  children  converse  with 
their  teachers  as  though  speaking  with  a  friend ;  when  I  saw 
them  working  with  their  hands,  and  giving  intelligible  ac- 
counts of  what  they  had  seen,  heard,  and  experienced ;  when 
I  noticed  that  they  learned  as  though  by  means  of  play — I 
felt  as  though  the  millennium  was  near  at  hand.  And  again, 
when  I  considered  that,  after  all,  this  band  of  teachers  was  in 
the  most  hopeless  minority,  that  there  may  be  an  approxi- 
mation to  this  kind  of  procedure  but  never  a  perfect  imita- 
tion in  the  vast  majority  of  teachers  in  the  world  ;  that,  after 
all,  this  was  a  mere  oasis  in  a  vast  desert — I  seemed  to  feel 
the  millennium  recede. 

I  own  frankly  that  I  felt  myself  very  small,  a  mere 
mite  in  the  presence  of  these  men  who  so  completely  and 
willingly  lost  their  character  as  teachers,  as  it  were,  and 
meant  to  be  nothing  but  companions  of  their  pupils.  Yet, 
despite  this  apparent  disappearance  of  the  teacher,  he  was 
here,  always  suggesting  movements,  aiding  efforts,  leading 
the  way,  feeding  tbe  imagination,  directing  invisibly  the 
education  of  the  pupils  under  his  charge.  He  reminded  me 
of  the  iron  hand  under  the  velvet  glove. 

It  would  have  led  me  out  of  my  way  to  visit  all  the 
grades  of  school  that  are  here  represented  up  to  the  univer- 
sity and  beyond  it.  That  would  have  necessitated  a  stay  of 
weeks,  a  condition  which  could  not  be  complied  with.  Suf- 
fice it  to  say,  each  class  has  its  "Gesinnungs-Stoff  "  (matter 
appealing  to  the  sentiment).  In  the  higher  grades  of  the 
elementary  schools  it  was  biblical  history,  in  the  lowest  it 


CONCENTRIC  INSTRUCTION  ILLUSTRATED.  185 

was  a  collection  of  "  Maerchen  "  (popular  tales),  such  as  An- 
dersen's and  Grimms'.  The  principle  of  concentric  circles 
in  education  is  applied  in  every  branch,  every  class,  every 
school. 

I  spent  much  time  in  a  third  g"i*ade  (third  from  below). 
Everything  done  there  in  the  day  was  in  organic  connection 
with  the  centi'al  topic,  Robinson  Crusoe.  Geography  was 
learned  by  molding  maps  in  the  sand  and  tracing  his  jour- 
ney ;  by  molding  his  island,  etc.  Manual  work  was  linked 
with  the  pupil's  intellectual  efforts.  They  made  pots  like 
Robinson,  wove  baskets  like  Robinson,  etc.  The  composi- 
tions written  on  slates  had  Robinson's  exploits  for  their  sub- 
jects. All  seemed  like  a  natural  growth.  All  instruction 
had  a  common  center.  Robinson  Crusoe  had  to  these  chil- 
dren both  a  centrifugal  and  a  centripetal  power,  and  wielded 
them  as  Old  Sol  does  his  powers,  unseen,  unfelt,  yet  very 
effectively. 

2.  Concentric  Instrucxion  illustrated. 

It  would  be  tedious  work  to  lead  my  readers  through  the 
labj^rinth  of  conflicting  interpretations  of  the  Herbart-Ziller 
movement  now  stirring  up  the  pedagogical  world  of  Ger- 
many as  a  leviathan  does  the  quiet  depths  of  the  sea.  I  have 
been  spending  my  leisure  hours  in  railroad-cars,  in  hotel- 
lobbies,  and  by  the  light  of  my  faithful  student's  lamp  in 
studying  both  sides  of  the  question ;  have  seen  lessons  given 
according  to  the  prescription  of  these  latter-day  apostles, 
have  conversed  with  men  of  great  experience,  and  young, 
ambitious,  and  striving  teachers;  have  heard  lectures  on  the 
subject — in  fine,  I  have  honestly  striven  to  climb  up  to  a 
point  of  view  from  which  I  might  judge  impartially.  After 
several  months  of  intense  study,  1  believe  that  I  am  ready 
to  pronounce  judgment.  But  I  will  reserve  it  till  I  have 
offered  my  reader  a  few  more  lessons  which  may  illustrate 
the  principles.  Perhaps  he  will  then  be  able  to  form  his 
own  opinion. 

One  thing  I  must  note  at  once  :  We  are  apt  to  talk  of  a 


186         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE   OF  SAXONY). 

man's  method  of  teaching.  The  disciples  of  Herbart  shun 
that  word  where  they  can  consistently  do  so.  They  speak 
of  this  or  that  principle,  of  this  or  that  type  of  instruction, 
and  thus  set  an  American  schoolmaster  wildly  groping  for 
something  to  hold  on  to  in  the  labyrinth  of  conflicting  opin- 
ions. One  of  these  principles  of  teaching  is,  that  each 
branch  of  study  should  have  a  logical  and,  if  possible,  a  tan- 
gible, at  any  rate  an  organic  connection  with,  if  not  all,  at 
least  with  as  many  other  branches  of  study  as  possible,  to 
make  the  whole  course  of  instruction  one  organic  growth. 
This,  it  is  claimed,  will  facilitate  mental  growth  better,  than 
by  keeping  the  different  disciplines  apart.  Of  this  principle  I 
saw  an  illustration  in  print  by  Mr,  Lehmann  in  Halle  which 
I  will  give  in  full,  omitting  all  explanatory  remarks  which 
he  offers  for  the  benefit  of  his  readei-s. 

The  lesson  was  a  lesson  in  drawing,  entitled  *'  The  Ivy- 
leaf." 

Object. — Boys,  hitherto  you  drew  leaf -forms  from  copies 
in  print,  or  from  forms  I  drew  on  the  board  for  you.  To- 
day the  copy  is  wanting,  and  the  natural  leaf  is  given  to 
you  to  draw  from,  (Each  pupil  has  an  ivy-leaf  on  his  desk.) 
From  what  plant  are  the  leaves  taken  ?  If  our  former  draw- 
ing was  called  drawing  from  copies,  what  may  we  call  this 
kind  ?  If  our  object  were  merely  to  learn  to  draw  the  form 
of  the  ivy-leaf,  I  should  have  given  you  printed  copies ;  but 
we  must  learn  something  besides  drawing.  You  know  that 
the  leaves  of  different  plants  show  in  their  outlines  distinct 
geometrical  figures  or  forms.  Mention  a  few.  Now,  what 
geometrical  form  do  you  discover  in  this  maple-leaf  ?  (An 
irregular  pentagon.)  Yes,  you  might  also  find  in  it  the  isos- 
celes triangle  and  the  trapezium.  Show  them.  You  also 
know  that  every  plant  has  (aside  from  a  few  so-called  root 
or  radical  leaves)  one  form  of  leaves  which  is  consistently 
repeated,  though  showing  slight  variations.  It  is  so  with  the 
ivy.  Our  notion  of  an  ivy-leaf  is  a  very  distinct  one.  It  is 
the  type  of  ivy-leaf  form.  Among  all  the  difiPerent  forms  of 
ivy-leaves  I  have  furnished  you  in  natura,  you  will  have  to 


CONCENTRIC  INSTRUCTION  ILLUSTRATED. 


187 


find  that  type.  This  is  the  other  object  of  our  lesson.  Our 
objects,  then,  are  (1)  to  find  the  typical  ivy-leaf  form,  and  (2) 
to  learn  to  draw  it. 

I.  Since  we  have  discussed  and  drawn  other  leaf-forms,  I 
suppose  you  can  find  some  things  yourselves.  First,  tell 
whether  the  ivy-leaf  belongs  to  the  simple  or  complex  leaves. 
State  the  respective  order.  When  is  a  leaf  called  simple  ? 
When  complex  ?  When  lobate  ?  Show  that  the  ivy-leaf  is 
lobate.  Describe  the  different  lobes  as  to  their  number,  rela- 
tive size,  and  position.  Repeat  what  we  have  said  of  the  leaf 
so  far.     (This  is  to  establish  connection  with  botany.) 

II.  What  geometrical  figure  do  you  recognize  in  this 
leaf  ?  (Holding  up  a  perfect  ivy-leaf.)  Who  has  a  leaf 
which  shows  a  perfect  pentagon  in  its  outlines  ?  Show  a 
leaf  in  whose  outlines 

a  pentagon  is  only 
suggested,  not  clearly 
worked  out.  Has  any 
one  an  ivy-leaf  which 
does  not  exhibit  the 
geometrical  ground- 
form  of  a  pentagon  ? 
There  are  but  few. 
What,  then,  seems  to 
be  the  typical  form  of 
the  ivy-leaf?  What 
kind  of  a  pentagon  is 
it  ?  What  leaf  may 
be  said  to  be  a  regular 
pentagon  ?  Describe  the  irregular  pentagon  your  leaf  rep- 
resents :  (a)  the  sides,  (6)  the  angles.  Who  has  found  this 
confirmed  in  his  leaf  ?  In  what  way  does  yours  differ  ? 
Now  repeat  in  connection  what  we  have  so  far  said  about 
the  ivy-leaf. 

The  irregular  pentagon  of  the  typical  form  shall  be  drawn 
afterward.  Firet  we  must  take  some  measurements.  Sup- 
pose a  straight  line  be  drawn  from  the  apex  to  the  base  of 


Fig.  176. 


188         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

the  leaf.  Under  what  angle  and  in  what  point  would  that 
strike  the  base-line  which  connects  the  two  lobes  ?  In  what 
proportion  is  this  base-line  to  the  length  of  the  perpendicular? 
Now  suppose  the  points  of  the  two  middle  lobes  connected 
by  a  stright  line.  (See  Fig.  176,  points  x  and  n.)  What  angles 
would  this  line  form  with  the  perpendicular  ?  At  about 
what  point  would  the  two  lines  intersect  each  other  ?  Now, 
one  pupil  may  repeat  what  was  said  concerning  the  geomet- 
rical ground  form  and  the  construction  lines,  while  another 
goes  to  the  blackboard  and  draws  the  construction  lines  as 
the  other  pupil  dictates.  As  we  found  in  the  maple-leaf,  we 
may  accept  two  geometrical  forms,  the  trapezium  and  the 
isosceles  triangle.  (This  part  of  the  lesson  establishes  con- 
nection with  geometry.) 

The  outlines  or  contours  of  the  lobes  remain  to  be 
sketched.  What  do  you  notice  on  the  large  one  ?  It  shows 
a  line  on  each  side  which  is  curved  or  waved;  especially  in 
the  middle  a  lai'ge  curvature  outward  is  visible.  Draw  the 
outline  on  the  board  as  you  see  it  in  your  leaf.  You  will 
find  it  difficult  to  determine  the  outlines  of  the  other  lobes 
from  your  natural  leaves.  Let  us  compare  other  leaves. 
What  did  we  discover  in  the  leaf  of  the  horse-chestnut  ? 
The  contours  of  the  lobes  of  that  leaf  are  similar.  Here  is 
the  maple-leaf.  In  how  many  extremities  of  that  leaf  is  the 
similarity  of  form  unquestionable  ?  But  even  in  the  two 
lower  ones  we  have  recognized  the  ground  form  of  the  other 
three.     What  alone  could  lead  us  astray  ? 

Hence  it  is  apparent  that  it  is  a  peculiarity  of  plant- 
leaves  that  forms  repeat  themselves  in  them.  Let  us  see 
whether  that  is  also  the  case  in  the  ivy-leaf.  Who  has  a 
leaf  in  which  the  outer  form  of  the  middle  lobe  is  found  in 
the  side-lobes  ?  State  how  the  outlines  of  the  different  lobes 
are  joined,  whether  in  a  sharp  angle  or  a  curved  line.  I 
now  add  the  outlines  of  all  the  five  lobes  to  our  sketch  on 
the  board. 

Here  follows  a  review,  which  summarizes  the  points 
gained. 


CONCENTRIC  INSTRUCTION  ILLUSTRATED. 


189 


m.  Here  you  see  three  ivy -leaves  (Figs.  177-179) .  In  what 
particular  does  II  differ  from  I  ?  Show  the  rudiments  of  the 
lower  lobes.  Who 

has  a  natural  leaf        III.  IV. 

that  resembles 
this  one  ?  So, 
then,  it  is  evident 
that  in  the  ivy- 
leaf  the  forms  re- 
peat themselves 
also.  II  proves 
it.  Compare  II 
with  part  x,  y,  z 
of  I.  Only  at  one 
place  a  difference 
is  seen.  Where  ? 
Now  you  will  also 
be  able  to  recog-  Figs.  irr-ir9. 

nize  the  contours 

of  a  lobe  in  the  imperfect  leaves  of  III  and  IV.     What  part 
of  II  is  similar  to  IV  ?    Where  would  the  fourth  and  fifth 


Figs.  180, 181. 


190         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

lobe  be  if  they  had  developed  ?  How  do  you  determine  iti 
Who  has  a  leaf  similar  to  IV  ?  What  part  of  I  shows  simi- 
larity with  III  (r,  2/,  x)  ?  Also  in  III  the  division  into  five 
parts  or  lobes  is  suggested.  How  ?  It  is  plain,  then,  that 
the  ribs  of  the  leaves  are  important,  that  indeed  they  deter- 
mine its  construction  or  rather  the  construction  of  the  single 
lobes. 

Now  if  I  were  to  let  side  ribs  go  out  from  the  main  rib, 
where  would  that  be  ?  Then  you  understand  the  swelling 
in  the  contours  of  the  leaves.  (Pointing  to  m  in  Fig.  176.) 
What  would  develop  in  this  place  ?  A  new  lobe  ?  This  is  no 
impossibility  indeed,  but  occurs  frequently,  as  V  and  VI 
(Figs.  180,  181)  show. 


Fig.  182. 


IV.  The  perfect  ivy-leaf  is  now  shown  in  a  copy  and 
compared  with  the  natural  leaf  (Fig.  182),  and  the  matter 
discussed  is  thoroughly  reviewed  with  the  aid  of  this  leaf. 


EXPOXENT  OF  THE  HERBART  MOVEMENT.     191 

V.  After  that  the  pupils  draw  the  ivy-leaf  from  the  natu- 
ral leaves  before  them.  Construction  lines  are  permitted  at 
first ;  they  are  discarded  at  a  second  attempt. 

3.  Haixe.— The  Exponent  of  the  Herbart  Movement. 

In  prerious  chapters  I  have  lightly  touched  upon  the 
great  movement  going  through  the  educational  world  in 
Germany  known  as  the  "Herbartian  revival."  Hitherto  I 
have  studiously  avoided  to  state  my  opinion  as  to  the  merits 
of  the  so-called  "  Herbartian  school."  I  reserved  it  until  I 
had  seen  some  schools  which  followed  Herbart's  principles 
and  Ziller's  practice.  Even  now,  after  having  seen  such 
schools,  I  hesitate  to  decide.  It  is  a  case  where  fools  are  apt 
to  rush  in  though  angels  fear  to  tread.  Not  that  I  mean  to 
insinuate  that  I  feel  very  angelic,  but  that  I  am  not  foolish 
enough  to  jump  at  a  conclusion.  I  sincerely  doubt  that  the 
Herbartian  school  offers  the  recipe  which  will  improve  our 
schools  without  delay.  I  grant  willingly  that,  if  all  our 
teachers  were  like  the  brilliant  teachers  I  saw  at  work  in 
the  "  Francke  Stiftungen  "  at  Halle,  we  might  uncondition- 
ally advocate  the  adoption  of  the  principles  and  practices  of 
the  Herbartian  school. 

A  simile  may  help  me  to  explain  this.  There  are  two 
ways  of  smoothing  a  board — the  hand-plane  and  the  plan- 
ing-machine.  I  should  trust  my  dexterity  in  handicraft  to 
make  use  of  a  hand-plane,  but  I  should  hesitate  to  use  the 
planing-machine  with  its  destructive  cutter-heads  that  make 
three  thousand  to  four  thousand  revolutions  a  minute.  I 
should  hesitate  to  risk  the  board  as  little  as  my  fingers  to 
that  most  efficient  and  useful  device.  It  is  even  so  with  the 
Herbartian  practice.  It  is  most  intricate,  yet  withal  so  won- 
derfully simple  that  one  can  not  but  stand  in  mute  astonish- 
ment when  seeing  it  applied. 

The  essential  idea  underlying  the  practice  is  this :  Every- 
thing taught  during  a  day,  a  week,  a  month,  a  year,  should 
all  be  organically  connected.  In  the  center  of  all  stands  a 
"  Gesinnungs-Stoff "  (a  matter  appealing  to  the  heart  and 
U 


192         HALLE   (PRUSSIAN   PROVINCE   OF  SAXONY). 

interest).  Thus,  for  instance,  I  found  in  the  third  school 
year  Robinson  Crusoe  as  the  central  point  from  which  is- 
sued all  the  interest,  and  to  which  was  referred  back  all  else. 
All  language-lessons  take  their  material  first  from  the  nar- 
ration of  the  day,  then  from  other  sources.  All  written  work 
is  in  some  natural  or  artificial  way  brought  into  some  con- 
nection with  Robinson  Crusoe.  Arithmetical  problems,  I 
thought,  were  excepted  fi*om  this  rule.  But  no,  even  they 
primarily  referred  or  alluded  to  him.  As,  for  instance,  Rob- 
inson had  so  many  sheep  or  goats  ;  he  took  sixty  with  him. 
How  many  were  left  on  the  island  to  shift  for  themselves  ? 
He  had  been  on  the  ocean  so-and-so  many  days ;  he  counted 
the  marks  that  told  him  how  many  days  he  had  spent  on  the 
island  and  found  them  to  be  so-and-so  many.  How  long 
had  he  been  away  from  home  ?  etc.  In  reading,  the  pupils 
started  with  Robinson,  and  their  interest  in  reading  was 
kept  alive  because  each  boy  identified  himself  with  Robinson 
and  thus  read  much  and  well.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  all 
the  children  learned  w^as  saturated  with  the  narrative  of 
Robinson ;  but  the  teacher  employed  their  intense  interest  in 
that  hero  as  a  starting-point  in  nearly  every  lesson. 

These  Robinson  Crusoe  lessons  were  exceedingly  fruitful 
in  many  ways,  for  they  gave  op];)ortunities  for  stimulating 
self -activity  which  without  them  would  have  remained  dor- 
mant. Thus,  for  instance,  they  gave  rise  to  a  desire  to  imi- 
tate Robinson  in  making  pots  of  clay,  ladders  and  furniture 
of  wood  (all  in  miniature),  fish-hooks,  tools,  and  many  other 
things.  The  best  specimens  are  preserved  and  serve  as  illus- 
trations in  review-lessons.  I  was  present  during  the  last 
Robinson  lesson  of  the  year's  course  given  in  this  class. 
The  subject  was  Robinson  returning  home.  Something  was 
said  about  sailing-vessels  and  steamers,  and  the  teacher  re- 
marked, "  Well,  you  never  saw  a  sail  or  an  anchor,  so  I 
must  draw  them  for  you."  He  did  so,  and  next  day  several 
boys  brought  sails  in  natura  and  anchors  made  of  lead. 
(See  Robinson  Crusoe  Lesson,  No.  5  below.) 

Religion  proper  is  not  taught  in  this  grade,  but  the  nar- 


THE  MISER  AMONG  THE  ANIMALS.  193 

ration  of  Robinson  oflPers  occasions  in  great  abundance  for 
teaching  morals.  Moral  precepts  are  thus  very  effectively 
learned  because  they  are  drawn  from  the  childi*en's  own  ex- 
perience, for  they  experience  Robinson's  trials  and  apply 
them  to  every-day  occurrences. 

I  asked  Dr.  Otto  Frick,  the  director  of  the  "  Francke 
Stiftungen,"  to  what  extent  Herbart's  principles  and  Ziller's 
interpretations  were  adopted  in  the  different  schools  of  the 
"Stiftungen."  He  replied:  "We  have  absolutely  no  com- 
pulsion with  regard  to  the  methods  of  teaching.  I  am  not 
autocratically  inclined,  and  like  to  leave  to  each  teacher  the 
choice  of  his  methods.  Of  course,  I  advocate  Herbart,  and 
in  our  own  teachers'  meetings  we  discuss  his  works  thor- 
oughly. HLs  ideas  have  found  their  way  into  our  schools 
with  the  impressibility  of  truth.  There  is  still  opposition 
among  my  numerous  teachers  against  Herbart,  and  that  will 
perhaps  not  end  so  long  as  there  exists  a  peg  to  hang  an  ar- 
gument on ;  but,  while  I  am  happy  to  be  able  to  say  Herbart 
is  gaining  ground,  I  am  rejoiced  also  in  noticing  that  the 
wholesome  opposition  (which,  of  course,  never  turns  into  hos- 
tility) acts  like  a  clarifying  element  in  the  Herbart  camp." 

4.  The  Miser  among  the  Animals. 

An  ideal  lesson  in  natural  history  I  heard  in  the  "Francke 
Stiftungen  "  in  Halle.  It  was  in  a  school  in  which  I  least  ex- 
pected such  a  re- 
sult, namely,  in  a 
free  school  (school 
for  the  poor)  and 
in  a  class  of  the 
third  year.  The 
subject   was    the 

hamster,    or    Ger-         ^^^   183.-The  Hamster,  or  German  Marmot. 
man  marmot.      A  (Cricetus  Fnimcntarins  Pallas.) 

stuffed    specimen 

was  exhibited  and  also  several  chromo-lithographic  pictures. 

I  will  omit  the  description  given  both  by  pupils  and  teacher. 


194         HALLE   (PRUSSIAN  PllOVINCE  OF   SAXONY). 

it  being  much  like  the  one  I  sketched  in  the  article  "  Nature 
Description."  There  was  more  in  this  lesson  worthy  of 
note.  The  children,  eight  to  ten  years  of  age,  spoke  with 
conviction,  because  they  spoke  of  experiences,  having  been 
out  in  the  fields  with  their  teacher  and  explored  a  hamster's 
burrow. 

It  is  a  maxim  of  this  teacher  never  to  allow  a  positive 
statement  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  unless  it  is  the  result  of 
actual  observation  and  experience,  or  of  conviction,  and  as 
such  the  result  of  correct  reasoning.  This  will  appear  more 
distinctly  in  the  course  of  this  sketch.  The  reader  will 
please  bear  in  mind  that  I  offer  only  a  few  phases  of  the 
lesson. 

"  What  is  the  reason  the  marmot  is  called  a  miser  ? " 

"  All  summer  he  gathers  food  and  hoards  it  up  in  his  cave. 
He  carries  home  grain  in  his  spacious  cheek-pockets." 

"  How  do  you  know  that  ? " 

"  We  saw  some  grain  in  the  cheek-pockets  of  the  one  we 
caught,  and  his  den  was  full  of  it  like  a  barn." 

"  But  it  can  not  be  right  to  call  him  a  miser  for  collect- 
ing food  and  providing  for  the  winter.  We  do  that,  too,  by 
keeping  potatoes  in  the  cellar,  flour  in  barrels,  and  so  forth. 
The  bees,  too,  provide  for  the  winter.  I  should  think  it  un- 
just to  call  the  animal  a  miser  for  what  appears  to  be  noth- 
ing but  wise,  provident  saving." 

"  Ah,  well,  but  a  miser  is  he  who  saves  for  himself  only, 
and  will  not  share  his  stores  with  others.  We  are  expected 
to  share  our  provisions  with  others.  The  bee  never  gathers 
for  its  own  use,  but  for  the  whole  hive,  while  the  hamster 
won't  let  anybody  else  have  any  of  his  hoarded  treasures ; 
he  lives  alone,  and  eats  the  stored-up  grain  himself.  Ws 
call  him  a  miser  for  that  reason." 

"  Let  us  see  whether  we  shall  not  find  other  reasons  for 
calling  him  a  miser.  Does  a  miser  let  everybody  know  that 
he  has  money  saved  ? " 

"  No,  he  hides  it  in  a  safe  place  where  no  one  but  himself 
can  get  at  it.    And  that  is  exactly  what  the  hamster  does. 


THE  MISER  AMONG  THE  ANIMALS.  195 

He  hides  his  treasures  in  the  ground,  in  a  cave  dug  by  him- 
self.    It  is  difficult  to  get  at  him  and  his  treasures," 

"  Do  you  think  a  miser  would  fill  his  safe  with  copper 
pennies  ? " 

"  No,  as  soon  as  he  has  a  hundred  of  them,  he  has  them 
changed  to  a  silver  mark,  for  that  takes  less  room  and  can 
be  hidden  better  ;  and  when  he  has  ten  of  them,  he  has 
them  changed  to  a  gold  piece,  which  is  still  smaller,  and 
worth  as  much  as  a  thousand  pennies.  Copper  and  silver 
would  fill  his  safe  too  soon." 

"Well  said.  The  hamster  does  not  fill  his  cave  with 
bullvy  potatoes,  turnips,  and  roots,  that  take  up  much  space, 
but  with  yellow  wheat  and  oats.  But  tell  me  what  the 
miser  does  if  his  money-safe  is  attacked  ? " 

"He  defends  it,  and  so  does  the  marmot.  Don't  you 
know,  when  I  reached  with  my  hand  into  the  hole,  he  bit 
me  badly  ?    We  had  to  use  a  spade  to  get  at  him." 

"  Hugo,  you  may  tell  us  what  you  remember  best  of  our 
excursion  to  the  hamster's  cave." 

"  When  we  arrived  at  a  place  where  fresh  loose  earth  was 
piled  up  around  a  hole,  we  thought  it  must  be  the  entrance 
of  the  cave  of  a  pretty  good-sized  animal,  at  least  as  large  as 
a  cat.  After  the  animal  inside  had  bitten  Paul's  fingers  we 
knew  we  should  catch  him.  You  thought  it  might  be  a 
hamster.  Some  of  us  watched  the  holes — the  one  on  top 
which  we  had  some  difficulty  in  finding,  and  the  one  we  had 
discovered  first — so  that  he  could  not  come  out,  while  the 

other  boys  went  for  Mr.  H 's  dog.     Oh,  we  could  scarcely 

wait  for  him  we  got  so  excited !  Once  we  saw  the  hamster 
come  to  the  opening,  but  he  darted  back.  When  Packan, 
the  dog,  came  (you'll  remember  it  was  the  young  one  with 
the  crooked  legs,  called  badger-legged  dog),  he  was  told  to 
enter  the  hole.  He  snifiFed  at  the  hole  for  some  time,  and 
then  boldly  entered.  Presently  we  heard  a  yelling  and 
snarling  in  the  ground,  and,  not  long  after,  Packan  appeared 
again  with  bloody  snout  at  the  opening  of  the  tunnel,  and 
we  knew  he  had  killed  the  animal.     Now  you  told  us  we 


196         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

might  dig  for  tlie  animal,  but  to  do  it  carefully,  lest  the 
earth  should  cave  in  and  cover  up  what  we  were  anxious  to 
see.  So  we  dug  and  dug,  following  the  tunnel,  and  I  tell 
you  it  was  hard  work  ;  some  roots  of  a  tree  were  in  the 
way." 

"  Yes,"  cried  other  boys,  "  it  was  hard  work ;  we  dug  for 
it  till  the  sweat  rolled  down  our  faces ! " 

"  At  last  we  saw  the  cave  or  burrow,  and  then  you  took 
the  shovel  to  open  the  hole  carefully.  Yes,  there  he  lay, 
Mr.  Hamster,  stone-dead.  We  laid  him  aside,  for  first  we 
wanted  to  see  his  house." 

(Boy  went  to  the  board  without  being  told,  took  the 
crayon  and  sketched  while  he  continued  to  tell  the  story.) 


Fig.  184. 


"The  cave  was  almost  egg-shaped,  and  had  several  parts 
or  smaller  caves,  nearly  all  filled  with  gold-yellow  grain. 
It  was  like  a  house  with  many  rooms  in  it.  The  tunnel 
through  which  the  dog  had  entered  was  slanting  and  quite 
long.  On  the  top  of  the  cave  there  was  the  second  tunnel 
which  went  almost  straight  up." 

"Very  well  done,  my  son.  Did  you  see  that  the  little 
dog  found  it  difficult  to  squeeze  himself  through  the  hole  ? 
I  wonder  why  he  was  not  killed  by  the  hamster." 

"  Oh,  I  suppose  the  tunnel  was  wide  enough  for  the  dog 
to  creep  into.  You  see  it  must  be  pretty  wide,  for  the 
hamster  has  to  turn  around  in  it. " 

"  Did  you  notice  that,  around  the  hole  we  saw  first,  loose 
earth  was  piled  up  ? " 


THE  MISER  AMONG  THE   ANIMALS.  I97 

"  Yes,  that  was  what  called  our  attention  to  the  opening." 

"  Was  the  hole  B  discovered  as  easily  ? " 

"  No,  we  had  to  search  for  it  for  some  time.  At  last  we 
found  it,  almost  hidden  and  covered  with  dry  leaves.  But 
there  was  no  loose  earth  around  it." 

"  That  must  have  had  some  cause ;  can  you,  or  any  one  of 
the  class,  think  of  it  ? "    Another  boy  says  : 

"  The  hamster  must  have  begun  to  dig  here  "  (pointing  at 
A),  "  and  thrown  the  earth  behind  him.  I  believe  he  dug  the 
tunnel  farther  and  deeper  in  a  slanting  way,  till  he  thought 
he  had  dug  deep  enough.  Then  he  began  to  widen  out  a 
cave.  He  carried  or  rather,  shoveled,  the  loose  earth  with 
his  hind-feet,  or  paws,  out  through  the  tunnel  till  his  burrow 
was  wide  enough." 

"Yes,  that  is  likely  the  way  he  did,  but  that  does  not 
explain  why  the  edge  of  tunnel  B  was  so  clean  without  any 
loose  earth  around  it." 

That  was  a  poser  for  the  boys,  and  the  teacher  did  not 
feel  disposed  to  help  them.  After  some  hard  thinking,  one 
boy's  face  lit  up,  and  he  said :  "  I  believe  I  can  tell  the  I'eason 
why  the  edge  of  that  perpendicular  tunnel  was  clean.  You 
notice,  from  Hugo's  sketch,  that  this  tunnel  was  a  little  wider 
below  than  above;  that  it  looked  funnel-shaped.  I  think 
the  animal  did  not  begin  to  dig  on  the  surface,  but  from  be- 
low. The  earth  he  loosened  he  shoveled  with  his  paws  out 
through  tunnel  A,  and  continued  digging  upward  till  he 
had  reached  the  surface.  Thus,  no  earth  was  collected 
around  the  hole  B,  for  it  fell  inward." 

"  Very  well  said,  Fritz.  But  I  am  curious  to  find  out 
why  he  made  that  tunnel  at  all.  It  must  be  very  inconven- 
ient to  use  it.  If  he  entered  that  hole  B,  he  would  instantly 
fall  down  into  the  cave,  and  such  a  fall  would  not  be  pleas- 
ant enough  to  try  it  often." 

"  Ah,  well,  he  must  have  a  place  for  the  air  to  come  in,  or 
go  out.     Without  the  hole  B,  the  cave  would  soon  smell  bad. " 

"  That  is  a  pretty  good  reason,  my  lad,  but  for  that  pur- 
pose the  tunnel  might  have  been  slanting,  giving  him  two 


198         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  RROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

convenient  ways  to  get  in  and  out.  There  must  be  another 
reason,  I  think,  so  try  again." 

"  Is  the  hamster  a  fighting  animal  like  the  wolf  ? 

"  No,  my  son,  he  is  not.  Though  he  is  very  ferocious,  he 
fights  only  when  attacked." 

''  Then,  I  believe,  I  can  guess  at  the  cause  of  that  vertical 
opening.  You  remenxber  the  entrance  to  it  was  almost  hid- 
den under  bushes.  I  believe  that  the  marmot  uses  that  hole 
to  reach  his  den  only  when  he  is  pursued  or  chased  ;  and 
through  B  he  can  reach  it  quicker  than  through  A;" 

"  No,"  interrupted  another  boy,  "  you  mean  he  can  dis- 
appear from  the  sight  of  his  pursuers  more  quickly  by  enter- 
ing the  hole  B  than  he  can  do  it  going  through  A." 

"  Indeed,  Fred,  that  must  be  the  reason.  Hunters  tell  me 
that  hamsters  sometimes  disappear  at  quite  a  different  place 
from  that  in  which  the  entrance  of  their  den  is  (point  A)." 

This  is  only  an  episode  of  the  lesson  I  heard.  Some  of 
my  readers  may  be  disposed  to  doubt  the  report  of  this  con- 
versation, and  I  do  not  vouch  for  the  exact  choice  of  words 
and  expressions,  but  essentially  the  report  is  correct. 

I  heard  that  lesson,  and  noted  down  on  the  spot  the  man- 
ner and  method.  Teacher  and  pupils  conversed  as  though 
under  no  restraint,  yet  an  interruption  of  a  speaker  occurred 
seldom,  and  then  it  seemed  quite  in  place.  Not  an  inatten- 
tive child  was  seen  ;  all  were  deeply  interested. 

When  again  the  stuffed  animal  was  viewed,  and  the  pict- 
ures were  compared,  it  seemed  as  though  a  class  of  high- 
school  students,  not  little  fellows  of  nine  and  ten  years,  re- 
cited. The  fact  is,  they  said  nothing  but  what  they  really 
had  seen,  or  could  pronounce  as  the  re'Sult  of  their  own  hard 
thinking.  In  the  course  of  the  lesson  the  feet  of  the  mar- 
mot, his  teeth,  his  whole  build,  were  compared  with  those  of 
the  mole,  the  rat,  and  other  animals,  and  the  whole  family 
of  rodents.  In  other  words,  the  knowledge  these  children 
accumulated  was  organically  connected  with  previous  cog- 
nitions. 

Oh,  how  I  wished  to  be  a  child  again  and  go  to  school 


A  LESSON  ON  ROBINSON  CRUSOE.  I99 

here!  All  the  teachers  in  the  "Francke  Stiftungen"  are 
proud  of  that  colleague  of  theirs.  His  name  is  Koehler.  If 
any  of  my  American  brethren  should  visit  Europe  and 
should  chance  to  go  to  Halle,  let  them  call  on  Dr.  Frick,  to 
get  permission  to  hear  this  teacher. 

5.  A  Lesson  on  Robinson  Crusoe. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  previous  chapters  to  understand 
the  importance  of  these  lessons. 

Teacher.  "  Well,  my  children,  we  heard  that  Robinson 
had  at  last  found  means  to  return  home.  He  was  ready  to 
embark  in  the  ship,  the  captain  of  which  was  willing  to 
take  him  across  the  ocean.  What  do  you  think  he  took 
along  with  him  ? " 

Pupil.  "  I  think  he  took  his  parrot." 

Teacher.  "Why?" 

Pupil.  "  Oh,  he  liked  the  bird,  and  he  thought  it  would 
be  a  nice  present  for  his  mother." 

Teacher.  "  Indeed,  my  child,  he  was  sure  to  have  taken 
his  parrot,  and  I  am  glad  he  thought  of  that  dear  mother  of 
his.  Would  you  have  thought  of  your  mother  first,  if  you 
had  been  in  his  place  ? " 

Pupil.  "  Yes.  Don't  you  know  he  had  nearly  broken  his 
mother's  heart  by  running  away  from  home  ?  " 

Teacher.  "  Well,  what  else  did  he  take  with  him  ? " 

Pupil.  "  I  think  he  took  Friday.  He  could  not  have  left 
him  alone  on  the  island.  He  owed  him  thanks  for  being  his 
companion." 

Teacher.  "  True,  we  must  never  forget  a  debt  of  grati- 
tude. He  who  in  fortune  forgets  a  friend  is  not  worth 
having  a  friend.     What  else  did  he  take  ? " 

Pupil.  "He  took  his  self-made  clothes  and  parasol,  to 
show  how  he  had  helped  himseK." 

Teacher.  "  Yes,  it  is  likely  that  he  took  them.  Anything 
else?" 

Pupil.  "  I  think  he  took  the  tools  he  had  made,  and  some 
of  the  pots  he  had  formed  and  baked." 


200         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

Teacher.  "The  tools,  yes,  but  hardly  the  pots,  for  he 
would  have  found  it  very  troublesome  to  travel  with  them. 
So  then,  they  took  leave  cf  the  island.  The  sun  shone 
brightly,  and  the  birds  sang  as  though  they  meant  to  say 
good-by  to  Robinson  and  his  black  friend.  They  both  went 
on  board  the  large  sailing-vessel,  where  they  were  well  re- 
ceived. Now  the  anchor  was  wound  up."  (Teacher  draws 
an  anchor,  pupils  explain  its  use.)  "  The  sails  were  hoisted  " 
(sails  were  drawn  on  the  board,  by  pupils  likewise  on  slate), 
"  and  the  wind  began  to  move  the  vessel  onward.  Robinson 
stood  on  deck  and  looked  back  to  the  island  on  which  he 
and  Friday  had  spent  so  many  weary  months.  Both  remem- 
bered the  many  hardshij)s  they  had  suffered. — Now  some 
one  may  tell  the  story  so  far." 

Pupil.  "  When  the  captain  of  the  sailing-vessel  had 
agreed  to  take  Robinson  with  him  to  Hamburg,*  Robinson 
said  to  him :  '  Let  me  take  my  friend  Friday.  He  has  been 
my  companion  for  many  months  and  years,  and  it  would  be 
ungrateful  if  I  should  leave  him  here  alone  on  the  island.' 
The  captain  was  willing  to  take  the  black  fellow  also.  Then 
Robinson  took  on  board  what  was  dear  to  him,  his  parrot, 
his  tools,  his  clothes  of  goat-skin,  and  other  things  which  he 
wanted  to  show  at  home.  He  intended  to  give  the  parrot  to 
his  dear  mother,  the  poor  lady  who  had  grieved  for  her  bad, 
runaway  boy.  Both  Robinson  and  Friday  took  leave  of 
the  places  on  the  island  where  they  had  found  shelter,  and 
by  taking  the  captain  along  on  their  tour  of  leave-taking 
they  showed  him  the  island  and  many  of  the  objects  that 
had  served  them.  When  they  stood  on  the  deck  of  the  sail- 
ing-vessel, they  looked  back  upon  the  island.  The  sun 
shone  upon  the  gently  swaying  palm-trees,  the  goats  were 
capering  among  the  rocks,  and  the  birds  sang  and  twittered 
as  though  they  meant  to  take  leave  of  Robinson,"  .  .  .  etc., 
with  delightful  childish  particularity. 

*  Remember  this  was  a  German  school.  Another  deviation  from  De- 
foe's original  is  found  in  the  substitution  of  goats  for  llamas. 


A  LESSON  ON  ROBINSON  CRUSOE.  201 

Now  another  pupil  told  the  story,  somewhat  differently, 
a  proof  that  each  pupil  thought  his  own  thoughts.  Then 
this  part  of  the  narrative  was  entitled  "  Robinson's  Departure 
from  the  Island.^''  This  heading  found  a  place  on  the  black- 
board under  I. 

TeacJier.  "  For  the  present,  children,  we  must  leave  Rob- 
inson on  the  ocean,  and  let  us  hope  he  wUl  not  meet  with 
another  storm  such  as  had  wrecked  the  ship  on  which  he  had 
left  home.  We  have  a  gentleman  with  us  who  has  been  on 
the  ocean  several  times.  He  comes  all  the  way  from  America. 
Ask  him.  how  long  it  took  him  to  cross  the  mighty  ocean." 

Pupil.  "  Oh,  no,  he  can  not  have  come  from  there ;  he  is 
not  black  or  red  like  Negroes  and  Indians."  Some  boys 
laughingly  agreed  that  the  teacher's  statement  could  not 
have  been  right.  But  others  looked  sober,  and  one  of  them 
said  :  "  My  cousin  went  over  to  America  some  time  ago,  and 
when  he  comes  back  I  hope  he  will  be  white  yet.  People 
don't  get  black  there  who  are  not  born  black."  That  sobered 
the  othei-s  at  once,  and  now  they  believed  that  there  might 
be  white  people  in  America.  After  this  fact  was  acknowl- 
edged the  boys  said  to  me,  "  Do  tell  us  how  long  it  took  you 
to  cross  the  ocean." 

"  It  took  me  thirteen  days  and  ten  hours,  but  you  see,  I 
came  in  a  large  steamer.  Had  I  been  in  a  sailing-vessel,  it 
would  have  taken  me  much  longer — at  any  rate,  several 
weeks." 

Pupil.  "  Why,  that's  nearly  two  weeks  !  Did  you  not 
see  any  land  on  the  way  ? " 

"  Yes,  on  the  tenth  day  we  hailed  the  coast  of  England, 
and  after  that  we  hardly  ever  lost  the  coast  out  of  sight,  till 
we  reached  Hamburg." 

Pupil.  "  Well,  how  long  does  it  take  a  sailing-vessel  to 
cross  the  ocean  ? " 

"  If  the  wind  is  favorable,  about  five  weeks.  But  it  may 
take  seven  weeks." 

Pupil.  "  Hooh  !  seven  weeks  ;  why  that's,  forty-nine 
days,  just  think  of  it  !    Did  you  see  any  fishes  ? " 


202         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

"  Yes,  my  dear,  we  saw  large  fishes,  called  tumblers,  who 
jumped  from  one  wave  into  another,  following  the  steamer 
to  eat  what  was  thrown  overboard.  They  are  called  hog-fish, 
because  their  flesh  looks  like  fresh  pork,  rosy  and  fat." 
Pupil.  "  Did  you  have  any  storms  on  the  sea  ? " 
"  Yes,  a  storm  that  lasted  thi*ee  days,  and  we  had  much 
fog,  in  which  we  could  not  see  the  bow  of  the  steamer  when 
standing  at  the  stern."  Other  questions  with  which  I  was 
pelted  I  will  omit  here,  and  proceed  with  the  lesson. 

Teacher.  "  Let  us  see,  boys  :  our  story  tells  us  that  Rob- 
inson had  a  passage  which  lasted  nine  weeks.  If  you  re- 
member where  Robinson's  island  is  situated,  west  of  South 
America,  the  voyage  was  very  swift."  (Map  is  shown,  and 
distances  are  compared.)  "  The  vessel  met  with  no  storm  or 
fog,  and  the  weather  was  fine.  The  fishes  in  the  sea  could 
be  seen  playing  in  the  sunshine.  Robinson  and  Friday 
made  themselves  useful  on  board  by  helping  to  set  sails  and 
doing  other  things.  At  last  they  reached  the  coast  of  Eng- 
land, but  did  not  land.  The  vessel  glided  along  the  shores 
of  England,  France,  Holland,  and  Germany,  and  finally  up 
the  river  Elbe,  and  entered  the  harbor  of  Hamburg.  Some 
one  may  tell  the  story  of  '"Robinson's  Voyage  across  tlie 
Ocean.'' ^^ 

First  one,  then  two  others,  told  the  story,  mentioning 
time  of  voyage,  comparing  it  with  that  of  a  steamer.  The 
fishes,  sunshine,  wind,  sails,  work  on  deck,  and  other  points 
were  touched  with  a  faithfulness  truly  astonishing. 

Teacher  "Let  us  proceed.  Tell  me  what  was  done 
when  the  ship  was  fastened  to  the  dock  ? " 

Pupil.  "  The  people  left  the  ship  and  went  on  land." 
Teacher.  "  Leaving    everything    under    deck  they  had 
brought  with  them  ?  " 

Pupil.  "  No,  they  unloaded  the  freight." 
Teacher.  "  What  may  that  have  consisted  of  ? " 
Pupil.  "  Well,  the  ship  had  been  in  the  South  Sea,  and 
may  have  been  loaded  with  oranges  or  other  southern  fruit, 
perhaps  with  cocoanuts." 


A  LESSON  ON  ROBIXSON  CRUSOE.  203 

Teacher.  *'  What  other  things  are  brought  from  foreign 
countries  ? " 

Pupil.  "  Petroleum,  wheat,  dye-wood,  wild  animals,  hides, 
dried  fish." 

Teacher.  "Think  of  some  things  that  do  not  grow  ia 
Germany." 

Pupil.  "  Coffee,  rice,  tea,  cane-sugar,  cotton,  tobacco." 

Teacher.  "  Very  well.  Our  story  does  not  say  with  what 
the  ship  was  loaded ;  but,  when  it  was  fastened  to  the  dock, 
all  the  freight  was  carried  out  and  wheeled  into  the  big 
magazines  along  the  dock,  where  the  merchants  came  to 
buy.  Shall  we  stay  at  the  dock  and  see  the  freight  unloaded, 
or  follow  Robinson  and  Friday  into  town  ? " 

Pupil.  "  Let  us  follow  Robinson." 

Teacher.  "  All  right ;  it  must  have  taken  several  days  to 
unload  the  ship,  and  Robinson  wanted  to  hiu'ry  home  to  see 
his  dear  old  mother.  How  do  you  think  Friday  behaved 
when  they  reached  the  harbor  ? " 

Pupil.  "  Oh,  he  must  have  been  very  much  astonished, 
for  he  had  never  seen  a  city.  Tlie  many  ships,  the  high 
houses,  the  many  white  people,  and  the  smoking  chimney- 
stacks  of  the  steamers,  the  cranes  for  unloading  ships,  all  of 
it  must  have  looked  very  queer  to  him." 

Another  pupil.  "The  strangest  things  the  savage  saw 
must  have  been  the  hoi-ses  drawing  wagons.  '  Look,  Robin- 
son,' he  cried,  'look  at  these  animals!  Did  you  ever  see 
such  strange  things  ? '  And  when  they  entered  a  horse-car 
and  noticed  the  long  rows  of  houses  with  the  many  many 
windows,  the  thousands  of  people  on  the  streets,  and  all  the 
many  objects  of  interest  flitting  by,  he  sat  in  dumb  amaze- 
ment." 

Teacher.  "  Very  well  told,  my  boy.  I  see  I  need  not  tell 
the  story  rayseK  ;  you  can  tell  it  as  well  as  I  can.  What 
happened  when  they  left  the  street-car  ? " 

Pupil.  "Oh,  Friday  saw  so  many  new  things  he  had 
never  seen  before  that  he  stood  still  every  minute  to  ask 
Robinson  to  look  at  this  and  that."    Other  pupils.  "Yes  ; 


204         HALLE  (PKUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

and  when  they  came  to  a  big  shop-window  he  wanted  to 
know  what  everything  seen  there  was  for." — "He  reached 
out  his  hand  to  take  some  of  the  things  to  look  at  them 
closer,  but  was  much  astonished  to  find  he  could  not  do  that 
on  account  of  the  thick  pane  of  glass  between  him  and  the 
articles." — "  I  wonder  how  often  he  cried  to  Robinson,  who 
was  urging  him  on,  to  stay  and  look  at  a  new  article  he  had 
never  seen  ? " — "  I  believe  he  was  afraid  when  he  saw  the  first 
dog.  He  may  have  thought  him  to  be  a  wild  animal,  such 
as  a  panther." 

Teacher.  "  We  will  call  this  part  of  our  story  '  Their  Ar- 
rival in  Hamburg  and  Friday'' s  Astonishment.^  Some  one 
may  tell  me  the  story."  It  is  repeated  in  a  connected  manner 
by  several  pupils.  Then  the  teacher  said:  ''  Before  we  hear 
what  Robinson  found  at  home,  let  us  repeat  the  three  parts 
of  our  story.  This  section  shall  tell  us  of  his  departure 
from  the  island ;  the  second  section  may  tell  us  all  about  his 
voyage  across  the  ocean ;  and  the  third  of  their  arrival  in 
the  harbor  and  Friday's  astonishment  at  the  new  sights  he 
beheld."  It  was  surprising  to  see  how  faithfully  they  re- 
called the  different  incidents  spoken  of  and  how  well  they 
expressed  their  thoughts. 

Teacher.  "  At  last  they  reached  the  house  where  Robinson 
was  born.  He  looked  at  the  door-plate,  which  used  to  bear 
the  name  '  Daniel  Crusoe,'  but  now  bore  another  name.  Rob- 
inson rang  the  bell.  A  servant  opened  the  door  and  asked 
whom  he  wanted  to  see.  He  said,  '  I  want  to  see  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Crusoe.'  '  They  do  not  live  here  any  longer;  but  wait  a 
moment,  I  will  call  my  master.  He  may  tell  you  where  to 
find  them.'  The  gentleman  came  and  looked  at  this  strange 
couple,  Robinson  not  having  had  time  to  shave  his  long 
beard  and  cut  his  hair,  and  Fi'iday,  the  black  fellow,  must 
have  looked  odd  enough  in  this  city  of  white  people ;  and  then 
remember  that  they  were  laden  with  queer-shaped  things  and 
a  jabbering  parrot.  Robinson  asked  anxiously  after  his 
mother.  The  gentleman  of  the  house  asked  them  in,  offered 
them  seats,  and  then  told  them  all  about  the  old  people. 


A  LESSON  ON  ROBINSON  CRUSOK  205 

"  Robinson's  mother  had  grieved  so  much  over  her  run- 
away boy  that  she  fell  ill,  and,  when  news  reached  her  that 
the  ship  in  which  he  had  sailed  for  foreign  lands  had  been 
wrecked,  she  died  of  a  broken  heart.  Think  of  the  bitter 
tears  of  repentance  Robinson  cried  when  he  heard  that  that 
dear,  gentle,  loving  mother  of  his  had  died  of  grief !  He  was 
a  strong  man  now ;  but  the  hot  tears  trickled  down  into  his 
long  beard,  and  for  some  time  he  could  not  control  himself, 
Friday,  seeing  his  friend's  great  distress,  began  to  weep  too ; 
but  the  parrot  that  was  intended  for  a  present  to  the  old 
dame  did  not  know  what  to  make  of  it.  At  last  Robinson 
controlled  himself  enough  to  ask  after  his  father. 

"  He  was  still  alive,  the  gentleman  said,  but  he  had  re- 
tired from  business  and  lived  in  a  small  house  near  the  har- 
bor, where  he  sat,  lonely  and  forsaken,  to  watch  the  ships 
coming  in  and  leaving  the  harbor.  Robinson  thanked  the 
gentleman  kindly  for  the  information  and  left  the  old  house, 
to  look  up  his  father.  After  many  inquiries  along  the 
wharf,  he  found  the  house  where  his  father  lived.  They 
hurried  up-stairs,  and  in  a  tidy  little  room  they  found  the  old 
man.  His  hair  had  become  white,  his  eyes  dim,  and  his 
voice  trembling.  Robinson  threw  himself  on  his  knees  be- 
fore him  and  told  him  he  was  that  bad,  runaway  boy.  He 
had  been  saved,  and  had  come  back  to  him  never  to  leave 
him  again.  The  old  man  laid  his  hands  on  his  son's  head 
and  thanked  God  for  having  given  him  back  his  boy." 

My  readers  may  believe  me  if  I  say  the  pupils  sat  there 
spellbound,  tears  in  their  eyes,  and  many  of  them  were  sob- 
bing. The  teacher  had  told  the  story  so  touchingly  that  the 
children's  sympathy  had  been  aroused.  Not  an  incredulous 
smile,  not  a  sneer  was  seen,  not  a  word  was  heai'd  from  them 
for  some  moments  after  the  teacher  had  closed  his  narrative. 
It  was  one  of  those  moments  in  which  it  is  said  an  angel 
walks  through  the  room.  At  last  the  teacher  roused  the 
children  from  a  deep  reverie  by  asking  them  to  repeat  this 
part  of  th3  story,  which  he  termed  '*  Robinson's  Bitter  Re- 
pentance.''^   It  was  done  with  touching  simplicity  and  great 


206         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

accuracy.  Again  the  entire  lesson  was  reviewed,  partly  by 
questioning  the  class,  partly  by  allowing  them  to  naiTate 
portions  in  a  connected  manner.  Many  new  incidents  were 
added,  and,  when  at  last  the  lesson  closed,  the  story  of  Rob- 
inson Crusoe  wari  finished  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  con- 
cerned. 

This  narration  furnishes  the  "  Gesinnungs-StofP "  (mate- 
rial for  the  sentiments)  of  this  class  as  other  tales  do  in  lower 
and  biblical  history  does  in  higher  grades.  Besides  offering 
food  for  the  sentiments,  these  lessons  increase  the  pupil's 
knowledge,  give  opportunities  for  employing  their  hands, 
and  polish  their  language.  Much  of  what  is  offered  in  a  con- 
nected manner  in  the  above  account  was  given  in  conversa- 
tion; but  a  rer&a^im  repetition  might  have  been  tedious  to 

the  reader. 

6.  A  Language-Lesson. 

It  was  in  a  boys'  school  of  the  "  Francke  Stiftungen  " 
that  I  heard  a  lesson  in  reading  and  language  preparatory 
to  a  composition  exercise.  The  subject  was  that  well-known 
poem  of  Chamisso, "  The  Sun  brings  it  to  Light."  The  poem 
was  read  in  parts,  and  the  contents  were  grouped  logically 
in  four  divisions :  1.  The  master  and  his  wife  in  the  work- 
shop ;  2.  The  wife's  efforts  to  get  at  the  secret ;  3.  The  be- 
trayal of  the  secret;  4.  The  consequences.  All  who  know 
the  beautiful  poem  can  understand  how  interestingly  it  can 
be  treated.  I  will  therefore  only  say  that  the  teacher  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  out  all  the  points  that  could  be  of  assist- 
ance in  writing  the  composition — that  is,  in  transposing  the 
poem  into  prose. 

But  there  was  an  epilogue  to  the  lesson  which  proved  a 
revelation  to  the  class.     Let  me  sketch  it. 

Teacher.  "  How  do  you  think  a  poem  is  suggested  to  a 
poet  ? " 

Answer.  "He  sees  something  beautiful  and  gives  the 
feelings  it  creates  in  him  expression  in  rhymed  words," 

Another  answer.  "  He  may  hear  of  a  praiseworthy  act, 
or  read  of  it  in  the  papers,  and  may  be  much  moved  by  it,  so 


A  LANGUAGE-LESSON.  207 

much,  indeed,  that  a  desire  is  awakened  in  him  to  preserve 
in  poetry  the  memory  of  the  brave  act ;  or,  instead  of  an  act 
of  heroism,  it  may  be  any  other  memorable  occurrence." 

Teacher.  "  It  so  hapi)ened  that  Chamisso  read  of  this  case 
of  murder  and  of  the  discovery  of  the  giiilty  party,  and  then 
set  it  in  poetry.  But  do  you  think  the  poems  produced  thus 
accurately  describe  the  cases  as  given  in  newspaper  ac- 
counts ? " 

Answer.  "  No,  not  exactly.  They  often  diflPer  very  much  in 
names,  in  descriptions,  in  regard  to  time  and  circumstances, 
etc.  The  poet  is  likely  to  '  decorate '  the  occurrence,  and 
often  supplies  a  poetic  luster  which  the  occurrence  itself 
does  not  possess.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  poet  Schwab  could 
not  have  known  what  the  great-grandmother,  grandmother, 
mother,  and  cliild  said  and  thought  just  before  the  light- 
ning struck  them.  Yet  in  his  poem,  '  The  Thunderstorm,' 
he  makes  them  say  and  do  things  as  though  he  had  been 
present  and  seen  and  heard  it  all." 

Teacher.  "  Well,  then,  what  is  your  opinion  with  regard 
to  this  poem  of  Chamisso  ? " 

Ansiuer.  "  What  Fred  said,  I  think,  holds  good  in  this 
case.  The  poet  evidently  supplied  description  and  senti- 
ments, and  only  the  essential  facts  are  the  same  as  in  the 
account  he  read." 

Teacher.  "  We  will  see.  I  have  here  the  account  which 
induced  Chamisso  to  make  the  poem  that  we  read  to-day.  I 
will  read  you  the  account.  Notice  what  changes  the  poet 
made," 

And  now  he  proceeded  to  read  an  old  popular  narrative 
which  bore  such  striking  resemblance  to  Chamisso's  poem 
that  the  boys  were  much  surprised.  Such  words  as  "  malt 
zitternde  Kringel  an  die  Wand,"  "  plagt  ihn  mit  Hadem 
und  Bitten,"  occurred  in  the  prose  narration,  even  the  name 
of  the  master  was  the  same.  Altogether  it  was  the  most 
faithful  and  minute  transposition  of  poetry  into  prose  that 
one  could  imagine.  *'  What  now,  boys  ?  "  asked  the  teacher 
when  he  had  finished  reading  the  account. 
16 


208         HALLE  (PRUSSIAN   PROVINCE   OF  SAXONY). 

Answer.  "  What  a  sixrprising  similarity !  How  the  poet 
must  have  labored  to  preserve  the  particular  expressions, 
and  how  he  could  mold  the  entire  account  into  metric  feet 
and  rhymes  without  omitting  one  detail  or  changing  even 
the  characteristic  expressions  of  the  prose!  Or  have  you 
been  making  sport  of  us  by  reading  a  prose  rendition  of  the 
poetry  ?  I  feel  disposed  to  ask  which  is  the  older  produc- 
tion, the  poem  or  the  prose  narration  ? " 

Teacher.  "  No  ;  the  prose  narration  is  the  older.  It  is 
the  very  account  the  poet  transposed.  But  what  do  you  in- 
fer from  the  fact  that  the  two  show  such  a  remarkable  simi- 
larity ? " 

Answer.  "I think  that  enhances  Chamisso's  value  as  a 
poet.  If  he  could  so  wield  the  language  as  to  preserve  all 
the  beauties  of  expression  found  in  this  prose  narration  and 
add  to  them  by  molding  them  into  poetry,  he  must  be  a 
genius  of  no  low  type." 

Teacher  and  pupils  all  agreed  with  that,  and  when  the 
boys  began  to  write  their  composition  they  resolved  to  pre- 
serve the  felicitous  choice  of  words  which  makes  the  poem  so 
popular.  They  went  to  work,  indeed,  as  though  they  meant 
to  produce  a  masterpiece  in  prose,  a  determination  which  I 
traced  back  to  the  innocent  but  effective  device  of  the  teacher. 

7.  Miscellaneous  Notes  from  Halle. 

Among  the  several  schools  in  the  "  Francke  Stif tungen  " 
in  Halle  in  which  I  spent  some  time,  was  a  normal  school 
for  young  ladies.  It  had  thirty-three  pupils,  between  eight- 
een and  twenty-one  years  of  age.  These  young  ladies  were 
very  much  more  healthy-looking  than  the  average  pupil  of 
the  Cincinnati  Normal  School  and  other  similar  institutions 
in  America  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  but  they  were  not 
so  handsome  and  not  by  far  so  intelligent  as  the  Amei-ican 
young  ladies.  The  lesson  I  heard  was  one  in  psychology 
and  logic.  It  seemed  as  though  this  was  the  most  difficult 
study  under  the  sun,  although  the  teacher  was  a  perfect 
master  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES  FROM  HALLE.  209 

In  a  girls'  school  in  Halle  I  heaid  a  lesson  in  percentage 
in  a  class  similar  to  our  D  Grammar  (fifth  school  year). 
The  pupils  handled  the  subject  clumsily,  as  would  be  expected, 
but  to  think  that,  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  year,  the  subject 
of  fractions  is  finished,  is  astonishing.  I  found  this  in  sev- 
eral places  in  Germany  and  France,  and  can  explain  it  only 
by  the  fact  that  the  ponderous  chapter  of  denominate  num- 
bers is  omitted.  In  countries  where  the  metric  system  is 
used  the  measures  are  taught  along  with  numeration  and 
notation. 

A  lesson  in  geography  that  I  heard  in  an  upper  gi-ado  of 
a  gu'ls'  school  is  also  very  vividly  remembered.  The  teacher 
discussed  continental  climate,  its  causes  and  effects.  Every 
conclusion  the  pupils  arrived  at  was  found  by  themselves  by 
comparison  of  facts.  All  the  teacher  did  was  pointing  out 
the  topographical  conditions  of  each  continent.  Oiir  Amer- 
ican scorching  summers  and  cold,  blizzard  wintei's  were  ac- 
counted for,  and  I  could  not  help  but  admire  the  teacher's 
intimate  acquaintance  with  America,  and  the  girls'  intense 
interest  and  keen  intellect. 

One  observation  made  in  every  class-room  of  the  "  Francke 
Stiftungen  "  is,  that  the  teachers  make  a  halt  every  now  and 
then  during  the  lesson,  and  carefully  go  over  the  work  by 
calling  upon  pupils  to  present  in  a  connected  manner  what 
conclusion  was  drawn,  and  upon  what  premises  it  rested. 
They  thereby  prevented  a  great  deal  of  reviewing;  they 
allowed  the  matter  to  sink  in  deeper ;  they  enabled  the  pupil 
to  look  back  over  the  entire  road  on  which  they  had  aiTived 
at  their  conclusions.  These  "  part-reviews  "  are  most  desii*a- 
ble  also  for  the  reason  that  the  pupils  get  conscious  of  their 
reasoning  and  are  enabled  to  reproduce  it  in  writing,  which 
task  follows  nearly  every  lesson  in  these  schools. 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  in  an  institution  like 
Francke's,  industrial  work  of  the  girls  is  much  thought  of. 
It  would  be  a  useless  repetition,  though,  to  describe  it,  since 
I  have  dwelt  on  that  subject  elsewhere  at  length.  (Compare 
pages  120-126.)     Sufiice  it  to  say  that  I  noticed  an  effort 


210         HALLE  (PRUSSLiN  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY). 

at  economical  cutting"  of  linen  and  shirting  in  the  getting 
up  of  undergarments  which  is  characteristic.    A  blackboard 


rig.  1. 

20  CM. 

/ 

■^ 

\ 

M 

/ 

\, 

r-t 

K 

-A/ 

N  N 

\ 

1 

\ 

/ 

1 

\ 

/ 

1 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

B 

A 

H. 

22  C 

t.  WID( 

38  c^ 

I.WH 

E 

32 

:m. 

! 

r> 

s 
o 

8  CM. 

a 

r 

} 

L> 

o 

CI 

8  CM. 

a 

o 

\i-n 

r- 

32 

)M. 

[- 

o. 

1?, 

U 

r 

1 

wJ 

STE 

\ 

38 

CM.V 

l/IDE 

\. 

«2  CM. 

yroE 

Fig 

2, 

A 

D 

Fia 

3. 

E 

Fig.  185. 


covered  with  a  close  network  of  lines  was  used  to  draw  first 
the  piece  of  linen  according  to  exact  measurements ;  every 


SCHOOLS  IX  PRUSSIA.  211 

square  on  the  board  represents  a  square  decimetre.  Then  the 
body  of  a  chemise,  for  instance,  was  cut  out,  the  sleeves,  the 
triangular  sides,  squares  for  the  arm-pits  etc.  The  foregoing 
sketch  shows  the  mode  of  procedure. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

from  various  other  prussian  provinces. 

1.  Schools  in  Prussia. 

There  are  four  classes  of  public  schools  in  Prussian  as 
well  as  in  other  German  cities.  It  may  be  of  interest  to 
learn  their  distinctions: 

1.  People's  Schools,  either  Catholic  or  Protestant,  but  both 
maintained  by  state  and  community.  These  people's  schools 
have  an  eight  years'  course.  Children  of  both  sexes  enter  at 
six  and  leave  at  thirteen  or  fourteen  years.  No  language 
but  Grerman  is  taught,  and  this  almost  entirely  without  the 
aid  of  grammar,  simply  by  careful  training  in  the  use  of  the 
language.  Arithmetic  is  carried  on  not  quite  so  far  as  we 
do  in  our  common  schools.  History  is  taught,  both  German 
and  universal  history,  chiefly  in  biographies.  Geography, 
topographical,  political,  mathematical,  and  physical — within 
a  limited  compass,  of  course.  Physics  and  natural  history 
are  taught  during  the  last  two  years  of  the  course,  only  in 
an  elementary  way,  not  quite  so  far  perhaps  as  Paul  Bert's 
recent  book  shows,  which  has  been  presented  to  the  Ameri- 
can public  lately.  Drawing,  singing,  and  gymnastics  are 
all  taught  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  done  in  America.  In 
their  readers  the  pupils  find  more  solid  knowledge  than  is 
found  in  the  flimsy  conversations  of  our  English- American 
readers  ;  the  books  contain  masterpieces  of  all  kinds  of 
prose  and  poetry,  instructive  and  amusing.  Composing 
in  words  and  pictures  goes  on  at  every  step,  and  is  developed 
to  a  very  astonishing  degree. 


2ia      FROM   VARIOUS  OTHER   PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

2.  Burger  Schools,  Citizen's  Schools  so  called  in  contra- 
distinction from  the  People's  Schools,  which  are  elementary 
in  this  respect,  that  they  teach  the  elements  of  knowledge 
and  abstain  from  scientific  presentation.  These  Biirger 
Schools  attempt  more  than  mere  elements.  Their  course  is 
about  ten  years,  beginning  with  the  sixth  and  ending  with 
the  sixteenth  year  of  age.  The  first  three  years  are  con- 
sidered the  preparatory  school.  After  that  the  semi-scientific 
course  begins,  which  embraces  besides  the  common  branches 
also  French  and  a  little  Latin.  The  natural  sciences  are 
treated  more  thoroughly  in  the  higher  grades,  and  drawing 
leans  toward  industrial  pursuits.  The  Biirger  Schools  are 
only  for  boys. 

Side  by  side  with  these  schools  are  the 

Higher  Young  Ladies^  Schools,  of  which  I  can  not  say 
much,  not  having  visited  many.  I  only  know  that  they  ter- 
minate in  a  post-graduate  course  for  young  teachers.  The 
Biirger  and  Young  Ladies'  Schools  resemble  in  their  higher 
grades  our  city  high-schools.  The  Biirger  School  does  not 
prepare  for  the  university.  It  may  be  said  that  this  class  of 
schools  was  established  to  off"er  an  education  more  advanced 
than  can  be  given  in  People's  Schools,  and  less  extended  than 
a  preparation  for  the  university  would  necessitate.  All  relig- 
ions and  denominations  are  admitted,  and  religious  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  these  schools  by  specially  appointed  clergy- 
men, both  Catholic  and  Protestant.  The  Young  Ladies' 
School  is  mostly  for  Protestants,  while  for  Catholic  girls  the 
higher  convent-schools  are  open.  In  the  People's  Schools 
religion  is  taught  by  the  regular  class  teachers  and  the  pu- 
pils are  considered  ready  for  gi'aduation  when  they  are  ready 
to  be  confirmed  in  church. 

3.  Higher  Schools,  which  may  be  said  to  be  on  a  level 
with  the  majority  of  our  colleges.  They  are  all  for  boys. 
Among  these  schools  there  are  three  distinct  divisions  : 

I.  Gymnasium,  or  Lyceum,  or  Classical  School.  These 
schools  prepare  for  the  three  learned  professions— law,  medi- 
<^ine,  and  theology.     Much  emphasis  is   laid  upon  Latin, 


A  DEVICE,  NOT  A  METHOD.  213 

Greek,  and  Hebrew,  as  well  as  history  and  archaeology. 
While  modern  languages  and  sciences  are  not  neglected, 
they  can  not  be  said  to  be  the  most  important  branches  of 
the  curriculum. 

Its  course  is  fourteen  years,  from  the  sixth  till  the  twen- 
tieth year  of  life. 

The  teachers  are  all  graduates  of  universities. 

II.  Realschule,  also  called  Real-gymnasium,  pays  more 
attention  to  modern  languages  and  the  sciences  than  to  the 
classical  languages  and  archseology.  Much  attention  is 
given  to  drawing  and  the  mathematics.  Students  of  medi- 
cine, engineering,  and  business  men  are  prepared  here. 

Course,  fourteen  years.     Teachers  all  university  men. 

III.  Special  Schools,  are  either  industrial  or  art  schools, 
or  teachers'  seminaries.  Among  the  latter  a  few  are,  under 
certain  restrictions,  open  to  ladies. 

The  course  of  all  these  special  schools  varies  so  much, 
that  a  statement  as  to  its  length  can  not  safely  be  made. 

The  teachei*s  of  art  and  technical  schools  are  artists,  en- 
giners,  artisans,  etc. 

Only  large  cities  in  centers  of  industry  maintain  special 
schools  of  this  kind,  while  normal  schools  or  teachers'  semi- 
naries are  state  institutions  and  mostly  found  in  small  towns. 

4.  Universities,  the  work  of  which  is  so  well  known  in 
America  that  I  need  not  say  anything  about  them. 

2.  A  Device,  not  a  Method. 

Business  led  me  to  the  little  town  of  V in  Holland,* 

near  the  German  boundary,  and  having  a  few  hours  to  while 
away  in  waiting,  I  called  at  the  elementary  school,  where  I 
found  a  bright,  blue-eyed  young  man  busily  engaged  in 
teaching  about  fifty  pupils  between  six  and  ten  years  of 
age. 

*  This  being  the  only  school  I  saw  in  Holland,  I  insert  the  article  in  this 
chapter,  being  aware  that  the  Dutch  teachers  to  a  great  extent  copy  their 
German  brethren. 


214     FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

He  did  not  ask  me  the  customary  American  question, 
"  What  would  you  like  to  hear  ?  "  but,  after  ofiFering  me  a 
seat,  proceeded  with  his  work  as  if  no  stranger  was  pres- 
ent. I  liked  that,  and  soon  my  liking  for  the  young  man 
grew  into  admiration,  when  I  observed  with  what  loving- 
kindness  he  treated  the  youngsters,  and  in  what  a  masterly 
way  he  handled  a  class  and  taught  his  subjects. 

The  pupils  were  young,  and  the  class  before  him  at  the 
board  may  have  averaged  eight  years.  They  were  wrestling 
with  fractions;  yes,  dear  reader,  fractions  1  Not  such  as 
f|-^|,  but  familiar  ones,  such  as  ^,  i,  J,  etc.  The  teacher  used 
a  very  interesting  contrivance  to  illustrate  the  parts  of  a 
whole.     I  will  sketch  it. 


<':^Z2MZZMZ2ZS2ZZ2Z2SZZZZZS22ZZZZZ2Z2ZZZZZS2ZZ^ 


'^^■zzzzzzzzzzszzzzzzszzszzzzzzszzsz. 


y  v/v;w//j 


\  }ldM!^\^^'lj^'ii}^ 


■^/y-yZ^^^^^T^TZ^////////////^//^^^^^ 


k 


^i 


H 


H 


r 


V////////////////,'>^M/W///.W//////?y'//~ 


% 


X 


l< 


% 


/n\   A%\   /i2 


J yi\ 


H 


Fig.  180. 


The  above  is  to  represent  a  chest  of  shallow  shelves,  into 
which  boards  fit  snugly  ;  the  boards  are  cut  accurately  into 
parts,  as  indicated  in  the  cut,  and  each  part  is  labeled.  A 
glance  at  the  above  sketch  will  suffice  to  reveal  the  purpose 
of  the  contrivance.     It  speaks  for  itself. 

The  teacher  had  removed  the  thirds,  fifths,  sixths,  and 
others,  and  now  showed  that  a  whole  was  equal  to  f,  |,  y, 


A  DEVICE,  NOT  A  METHOD.  215 

If.  Then  taking  one  of  the  halves  out,  he  asked  how  many- 
fourths,  eighths,  and  sixteenths  made  one  half,  etc.  Reduc- 
tion, ascending  and  descending,  was  thus  thoroughly  exem- 
plified and  practiced. 

The  same  exercise  was  had  in  thirds,  sixths,  ninths, 
twelfths,  and  the  pupils  were  led  to  work  with  these  frac- 
tions themselves  ;  that  is,  "do,"  not  only  "see"  or  "hear." 
It  was  a  great  pleasure  to  observe  the  little  Dutch  boys  and 
girls  "  do  "  fractions.  Their  cheeks  glowed  with  excitement, 
and  they  noticed  the  stranger  as  little  as  did  the  teacher. 

When,  after  singing  a  pretty  little  song,  they  were  dis- 
missed, I  inquired  of  the  teacher  how  long  he  would  use  this 
device.  "  Only  a  few  times,"  was  the  reply,  "  for  it  would 
weaken  the  children's  comprehension,  or  rather  their  power 
of  thinking,  to  have  the  objects  always  before  them.  It  is 
my  intention  to  lead  the  pupils  from  the  object  to  its  symbol 
as  soon  as  possible.  But  if  I  were  to  use  the  symbols— that 
is,  the  figures — at  once,  without  the  objects  they  represent, 
I  should  be  putting  the  cart  before  the  horse.  To-day, 
the  children  learned  by  actual  observation  that  |=f=g, 
etc.  To-morrow,  they  will  learn  to  write  these  fractions 
while  having  this  device  before  them.  The  next  day  will 
bring  easy  combinations,  both  in  fact  and  in  figures. 
Thus,  I  think,  in  a  week  they  will  handle  with  ease  and  ac- 
curacy simple  fractions,  such  as  are  illustrated  by  these 
boards.  And  then  is  the  time  when  I  shall  put  the  device 
away.  But  I  mean  to  build  on  solid  rock,  on  a  firm  basis  of 
sense-perception. " 

"  Did  you  invent  this  contrivance  ? " 

"  Oh,  bless  your  soul,  no  !  It  was  invented  by  a  Japanese 
schoolmaster,  and  our  commissioner  to  the  New  Orleans  Ex- 
position brought  the  idea  to  us.  He  saw  the  device  in  the 
Japanese  school  exhibit." 

"  Have  you  had  special  preparation  for  the  profes- 
sion ? " 

"  Yes,  sir  ;  I  am  a  graduate  of  the  Royal  Normal  School, 
at ." 


216      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

3.  Mental  Arithmetic  everywhere. 

The  great  advantages  of  the  metric  system  in  the  teach- 
ing of  arithmetic  are  obvious  everywhere  here  in  Germany. 
Arbitrary  measures,  such  as  ours,  are  a  hindrance  in  school. 
Pound,  gallon,  bushel,  yard,  etc.,  all  have  a  different  number 
of  parts,  vsrhile  the  division  in  tens,  hundreds,  thousands, 
makes  reckoning  remarkably  easy.  This  enables  the  teacher 
to  conduct  mentally  eighty  per  cent  of  all  the  practice  in 
arithmetic.  It  is  very  interesting  to  see  pupils  of  the  third 
and  fourth  school  years  use  numbers  mentally  which  would 
take  our  pupils'  breath  away.  The  latter  can  not  handle  the 
arbitrary  measures,  such  as  yards  and  inches,  gallons,  quarts, 
and  pints,  bushels  and  pecks,  pounds,  ounces,  and  grains, 
etc.,  simply  because  the  variety  of  divisions  makes  a  num- 
ber of  tables  necessary  whose  committal  goes  beyond  the 
capacity  of  young  pupils. 

As  soon  as  the  German  child  knows  the  notation  and 
numeration  up  to  1,000,  he  is  made  to  apply  numbers  to 
metres,  litres,  and  grammes.  The  divisions  are  the  same  in 
all  measures,  namely,  deka,  hecto,  and  kilo,  multiples  of  one, 
and  deci,  centi,  and  milli,  parts  of  one.  It  is  always  10, 100, 
1,000  of  one,  or  ^V,  t^o)  ttsVo  of  one.  I  assure  my  readers 
that  only  one  half -hour  daily  is  spent  in  arithmetic  here, 
and  that  mostly  in  mental  or  oral  arithmetic.  In  the  fourth 
school  year  the  chapter  of  "  Fractions,"  both  common  and 
decimal,  is  completed,  and  the  fifth  school  year  takes  up 
simple  proportion,  the  so-called  rule  of  three.  In  the  sixth 
school  year  percentage  and  most  of  the  business  rules  and 
mensuration  are  treated,  things  which  with  us  are  reserved 
for  the  eighth  school  year. 

I  am  fully  aware  that  wc  can  not  help  this,  being  ham- 
pered by  the  voluminous  chapter  on  denominate  numbers 
during  the  fourth  and  fifth  school  years.  Here  in  Germany 
they  do  not  treat  that  chapter  as  a  separate  and  highly 
important  one.  The  pupils  need  not  study  tables,  for  the 
measures  are  taught  right  along  with  numeration  and  notar 


TEACHIXG   DECIMAL   FRACTIOXS.  217 

tion.  As  the  pupil's  horizon  in  notation  widens,  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  measures  increases.  It  is  a  fact  that  almost  the 
entire  groxind  in  arithmetic  gone  over  in  the  eight  years' 
course  of  the  American  common  school  is  here  completed 
in  six  years.  This  is  not  astonishing,  and  must  not  be  at- 
tributed to  a  greater  intellectual  power  of  the  German  chil- 
dren, for  they  are  not  as  quick  in  perception  and  application 
as  our  shrewd  American  youth,  but  rather  of  a  slow  but  sui-e 
kind. 

The  reason  is  to  be  found  solely  in  the  use  of  the  metric 
system  and  the  prevalence  of  mental,  or,  more  correctly 
speaking,  of  oral  arithmetic.  A  ihird-year  class  in  Duis- 
burg  solved  these  problems  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  : 
"One  sack  contained  5  kilogrammes,  7  hectogrammes,  3 
dekagrammes,  and  8  grammes  ;  another  2  kilogrammes,  3 
dekagrammes,  and  5  grammes.  What  was  the  weight  of 
both  ? "  "A  man  divided  21  marks,  25  pennies,  equally 
among  five  boys.  What  was  each  boy's  share  ? "  And  it 
was  done  without  the  aid  of  pen  or  pencil. 

Much  of  what  we  teach  in  our  American  schools  under 
the  captivating  title  of  business  rules  is  prohibited  hei-e  by 
the  regulations  laid  down  by  the  Minister  of  Instruction  ; 
as,  for  instance,  compound  interest,  stocks  and  bonds,  taxes, 
exchange,  etc.  The  course  prescribed  is  eminently  practical, 
to  say  the  least,  and  much  may  be  learned  from  it. 

4.  Teaching  Decimal  Fractions. 

Teachers  in  countries  that  have  adopted  the  metric  sys- 
tem have  an  advantage  over  American  teachers  in  this,  that 
they  have  at  their  disposal  means  for  illustrating  which  we 
can  not  apply.  While  our  measures— /oof-ruZe,  yard-stick, 
etc. — are  very  convenient  for  illustrating  common  fractions 
(twelve  and  thirty-six  being  oftener  divisible  than  ten),  the 
metre  is  the  ideal  means  for  illustrating  decimal  fractions. 

In  H I  observed  a  teacher  introduce  the  subject  of 

decimal  fractions  to,  what  seemed  to  me,  very  young  pu- 
pils.    First,  he  reviewed  numeration  :  "  Ten  ones  make  one 


218      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 


ten.  Ten  is  the  tenfold  of  one.  Ten  tens  make  a  hundred. 
A  hundred  is  the  tenfold  of  ten,  and  the  hundred-fold  of 
one "  ;  etc.  "  One  place  farther  to  the  left  increases  the 
value  of  the  digit  tenfold  ;  one  place  farther  to  the  right  de- 
creases it  to  the  tenth  part.  As  the  tens  are  obtained  from 
the  hundred  by  dividing  by  ten,  and  the  one  from  ten  by 
dividing  by  ten,  so  the  fractions  are  obtained  in  the  same 
way.     Thus,  by  dividing  one  by  ten,  we   get  ten  tenths, 

and,  by  dividing  one 

ONE  PART.  ONE  METER. tcuth  thus,  wc  obtaln 

I  I       ten  hundredths,  etc. 

This  was  further  il- 
lustrated by  using 
the  "  metre  and  its 
divisions. " 

A  metre-measure 
(pardon  the  tautolo- 
gy) was  sketched  on 
the  board  in  "  life-size."    It  was  made  three  times,  as  the 
cut  shows. 

The  children  knew  that  1  metre =10  decimetres.  So  the 
teacher  made  them  see  and  say  that  1  decimetre=ji^  metre. 
Similar  expressions  had  preceded  when  common  fractions 
were  treated.  But  the  teacher  was  very  thorough  in  his 
mode  of  procedure.  He  now  made  the  pupils  see,  say,  and 
write  as  follows  : 


TEN  PARTS.      DECIMETERS. 


HUNDRED  PARTS.     CENTIMETERS. 

iiiiimiiiiiiiiimii Hniiiiiiiiiiimmni 

Fig.  187. 


1  dm.  =1^111. 

2  dm.  =  -^Q  m. 

3  dm.  =  I'o  m.,  etc. 
9  dm.  =  j^o  TO- 

10  dm.  =  li?  m.  =  1  m. 


t^o"  «!•  =  1  dm. 
T^^  m.  =  2  dm. 
•^  m.  =  3  dm.,  etc. 
l^o  m.  =  9  dm. 
1  m.  or  \%  m.  =  10  dm. 

Then  exercises  like  these  followed: 
2  m.  1  dm.  =  2^^  m. 
2  m.  2  dm.  =  2-i^j  m.  and  so  forth  to  2i%  m. 

When  this  was  sufficiently  practiced,  the  decimal  nota- 
tion was  introduced.    They  knew,  from  preceding  exercises, 


ARITHMETIC  IN   A  VILLAGE  SCHOOL.  219 

.  that  every  place  farther  to  the  right  would  decrease  the  digit 
to  the  tenth  part.     Now  they  were  asked  to  write : 

2  m.  1  dm.  =  2-^o  m.  or  2.1  m. 
2  m.  2  dm.  =  2i%  m.  or  2.2  m. 
2  m.  3  dm.  =  2^o  ™'  or  2.3  m. 

The  use  of  the  decimal  point  was  not  necessary  to  explain, 
it  having  been  taugjit  in  connection  with  notation  of  marks, 
groschen,  and  pennies,  as  is  done  in  our  country  with 
dollars,  dimes,  and  cents.  The  result  of  this  lesson  is  that  5 
metres  6  decimetres  may  be  written  5.6m.,  just  as  5  marks  6 
groschen  may  be  written  M.5.6. 

Now  the  hundredths  were  treated  like  the  tenths  by  writ- 
ing whole  strings  and  columns  of  common  fractions.  Thus 
the  centimetre  was  brought  in : 

1  cm.  =  -^  dm.  =  xhis  ™'  Tor?  ™'  =  A  d™-  =  1  cm. 

2  cm.  =  -^  dm.  =  y§5  m.  -l§5  m.  =  1%  dm.  =  2  cm. 

3  cm.  =  i^j  dm.  =  y^^  m.  -rg^j  m.  =  i%  dm.  =  3  cm. 

Then  followed  again : 

3  m.  4  dm.  1  cm.  =  3  m.  4^^^  dm.  or  3.41  m. 
3  m.  4  dm.  2  cm.  =  3  m.  4/(5  dm.  or  3.42  m. 

Again,  notation  of  money  was  made  use  of.  Thus  they 
wrote  5  mark,  4  groschen,  3  pennies=M.5.43. 

There  was  nothing  startlLngly  new,  if  anything  new  at 
all,  in  this  lesson.  I  sketch  it  for  the  sole  purpose  of  show- 
ing that  familiarity  with  the  metric  tables  will  assist  in  the 
teaching  of  decimal  fractions.  If  there  was  anything  else 
in  this  lesson  which  commended  itself  to  me,  it  was  the  sys- 
tematic and  thorough  treatment.  There  was  no  skipping, 
no  jumping  at  conclusions,  but  a  steady  movement  which 
reminded  me  of  Nature's  own  unhurried  manner  of  growth. 

5.  Arithmetic  in  a  Village  School. 

After  having  jx>amed  about  the  Siebengebirge  (the  seven 
mounts,  a  little  way  up  the  Rhine  from  the  university  town 
Bonn)  and  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  views,  we  concluded  to 


220      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

inspect  the  school  of  a  hamlet  not  six  miles  distant  from  the 
summit  of  the  "  Drachenfels,"  and  visible  from  there.  The 
reader  of  my  "Chips,"  perhax)s  knows  that  the  writer  has 
a  singularly  keen  eye  for  defects  in  school-w^ook,  a  quality 
which  amounts  to  a  fault,  where  it  should  be  an  object  to 
see  "naught  but  good."  Well,  we  had  seen  Dutch,  French, 
and  German  city  schools,  schools  mostly  in  populous  cities, 
and  were  so  deeply  impressed  with  the  excellence  of  the 
work  done  in  them  that  the  perverse  spirit  of  envy  made  us 
long  to  see  something  to  criticise  severely.  The  school  in 
the  hamlet  mentioned,  we  thought,  would  prove  to  be,  like 
that  of  an  American  backwoods  settlement,  primitive  in  the 


Fig.  188. 


extreme.     But  we  were  greatly  mistaken.     What  we  saw 
was  admirable  work. 

One  device  particularly  struck  me,  since  I  had  advocated 
its  use  myself  in  the  educational  press  of  America,  It  was 
the  use  of  paper  squares  of  uniform  size  (six  inches),  but  of 
different  colors.  These  squares  were  perforated  like  sheets 
of  postage-stamps,  but  so  as  to  divide  them  into  different 
parts,  such  as  halves,  thirds,  fourths,  etc.  In  order  not  to 
be  misunderstood,  I  will  sketch  them  (see  Fig.  188).    The 


ARITHMETIC  IN  A  VILLAGE  SCHOOL.  921 

sqiiares  were  used  to  illustrate  fractions,  and  both  teacher 
and  pupils  were  liberally  supplied  with  them.  They  had 
been  procured  at  a  paper-mill,  and  cut  and  perforated  by  a 
printer. 

The  pupils  learned  the  process  of  reduction  ascending  and 
descending  very  rapidly.  The  terms  of  J  midtiplied  by  2 
gave  f ,  and  it  was  done  by  folding  the  sheet  of  thirds  so 
that  each  third  was  folded  to  make  two  of  six  equal  parts  of 
the  whole.    The  opposite  way  was  just  as  easily  shown. 

The  squares  were  of  different  color:  halves,  fourths, 
eighths,  and  sixteenths  were  pink;  thirds,  sixths,  ninths,  etc., 
green ;  fifths  and  tenths,  yellow.  This  afforded  an  instant 
selection  of  the  proper  sheet  when  a  problem  was  given  out. 
The  paper  had  the  thickness  of  ordinary  writing-paper,  and 
the  pupils  could  write  on  it  with  pencil  or  ink. 

One  problem  particularly  interested  me,  since  the  pupils 
received  no  help  whatever  in  its  solution.  I  hoxl  given  it 
out  myself,  prompted  by  a  spirit  of  mischief.  Example  : 
Multiply  I  by  :|^.  A  few  seconds  sufficed  for  the  brighter 
pupils  to  do  the  work  in  paper  and  on  paper.  Being  asked 
to  select  a  pupil  to  demonstrate  this  pix)blem,  I  selected  a 
sleepy-looking  youngster,  who  arose,  and  much  to  my  sur- 
prise turned  to  me,  saying : 

"  You  can  not  multiply  by  a  fraction,  since  multiplying 
means  repeating.     You  can  not  repeat  fewer  times  than  once ; 
^  not  being  even  1,  it  is  clear  that  you  meant  to  say  J  of  f , 
Now  take  a  sheet  of  twelfths. "    I  did.     "  Fold 
^  under,  leaving  f  of  the  sheet  visible."    I  did. 
"Now  fold  the  |  into  four  equal  strips.     By 
thus  dividing  f ,  you  also  divide  the  third  third 
folded  under.     You  really  divide  each  third 

Fig   189 

into  fourths,  or  the  whole  sheet  into  twelfths." 

I  did  as  indicated  in  the  margin  (Fig.  189).     "  Then  |^  of  | 

equals  ^  or  ^."    Thus  spoke  the  youth,  and  sat  down. 

My  admiration  grew  when  examples  in  division  were 
solved.  The  teacher,  a  thorough  master  of  his  profession,  did 
little  talking,  but  instead,  permitted  the  children  to  work 


m 


222     FROM   VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

with  hands,  brains,  and  lips,  not  caring  to  repress  whispering, 
knowing  that  this  was  the  inevitable  attendant  of  earnest 
work.  The  school  was  a  regular  country  school.  It  con- 
tained about  forty  pupils  of  all  ages  between  six  and  thir- 
teen, nicely  graded  in  four  grades. 

6.  A  Lesson  m  Botany. 

My  companion  and  I  had  missed  the  Rhine  steamer  one 
day,  and  were  obliged  to  stay  overnight  at  the  foot  of  a 
vine-clad  hill,  on  top  of  which  one  of  the  grandest  piles  of 
ruins — that  of  a  feudal  castle — spoke  louder  than  any  orator 
could  of  the  victory  of  modern  ideas  over  feudalism,  and  of 
civil  virtue  over  absolutism.  It  was  a  pretty  little  town 
where  we  were  thus  detained,  and  we  enjoyed  the  night's 
rest  at  a  quaint  old  inn,  where  we  had  the  best  attention  pos- 
sible ;  indeed,  the  landlord  took  great  care  to  make  us  feel  at 
home.  I  had  spent  several  days  at  the  gorgeous  Kimball 
House  in  Atlanta,  in  the  Palmer  House  in  Chicago,  and 
other  costly  hotels  in  the  Union,  where  the  rates  were  six- 
teen to  twenty  marks  a  day,  and  had  not  enjoyed  the  con- 
veniences which  here  were  offered  for  three  marks.  The 
steamer  was  due  at  one  o'clock,  and  so  we  found  our  way 
to  the  school-house  as  a  duck  finds  its  way  to  the  water. 

The  house  was  as  quaint-looking  as  the  town.  It  had 
low  ceilings,  small  windows,  and  was  poorly  ventilated,  but 
somehow  the  thought  that  perhaps  a  score  of  generations 
of  children  had  been  educated  in  this  building  mitigated  our 
disgust.  My  faithful  companion  made  friends  with  the 
schoolmaster's  wife,  who  was  trimming  vines  in  the  garden, 
and  I  began  to  mine  for  methods.  I  praise  my  good  luck 
for  having  missed  the  steamer.  The  teacher  of  the  ''  upper 
class  "  gave  a  botany-lesson.  Botany  was  something  I  had 
not  had  occasion  to  "  see,''  and  I  determined  to  get  the  most 
out  of  that  lesson. 

The  teacher  explained  to  me  privately  that,  when  he  had 
been  young,  botany  had  always  "  given  him  the  creeps,"  he 
had  so  abhorred  the  deadening  influence  of  learning  tech- 


A  LESSON  IN  BOTANY.  223 

nical  terms,  and  classifying  plants  and  flowers  according  to 
the  Linnaean  system.  When  he  was  appointed  to  this  place, 
he  determined  to  make  botany  liked  by  his  pupils.  In  order 
to  understand  the  situation,  the  reader  must  remember  that 
this  was  an  elementary  school,  not  a  high-school. 

The  pupils  were  plentifully  provided  with  leaves  which, 
according  to  directions,  they  had  gathered  on  their  way  to 
school.  Now  they  learned  to  classify  the  leaves  according 
to  their  edges.  It  was  interesting  to  notice  how  skillfully 
the  teacher  combined  with  this  botany-lesson  (a)  spelling,  (6) 
language,  (c)  drawing.  He  enlarged  the  pupils'  vocabulary 
by  placing  on  the  board  every  new  word  used  ;  then  it  was 
spelled,  and  then  copied  into  the  note-book  under  the  draw- 
ing or  sketch  made,  which  served  as  illustration. 

Not  a  single  Latin  technical  term  was  employed,  all  were 
German,  and  that  struck  me  as  eminently  wise.  Such  words 
as  serratum,  dentatum,  crenatum,  repantiim,  sinuatum, 
ciliatum,  mean  nothing  to  the  children.  You  may  as  well 
say  setarum  for  serratum,  it  is  all  the  same  to  them.  But  if 
called  "  saw-like,  tooth-like,  notch-like,  slope-like,  bay-like," 
etc.,  the  words  convey  a  meaning.  Ideas  arising  from  such 
instruction  abide  in  the  memory,  because  they  are,  as  it 
were,  the  organic  growth  and  outcome  of  sense-perception. 
Catch  me  using  the  outlandish  botanical  names  again  in 
schools  below  the  high-school  !    I  won't  do  it  ! 

This  is  the  way  the  teacher  proceeded  :  He  selected  a 
number  of  leaves,  the  edges  of  which  were  all  "  saw-like," 
and  then  sketched  them  on  the  board.  There  were  four  dif- 
ferent kinds.  Of  the  fourth  kind  no  sample  could  be  fur- 
nished, so  he  had  to  reproduce  it  from  memory,  but  every 
pupil  nodded,  indicating  thereby  that  he  had  seen  it  some- 
where. The  German  technical  terms  were  added,  spelled, 
copied  (as  were  the  sketches),  and  then  the  momentous  ques- 
tion arose,  what  plants  have  this  kind  of  leaves,  say  "  fine 
saw-edged,"  or  ''  double  saw-edged  leaves  ? " 

These  facts  were  added  to  the  notes  already  taken. 
When  an  honest  difference  of  opinion  arose  between  two 
IG 


224     FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 


pupils,  the  teacher  asked  them  to  go  into  the  garden  and 
determine  who  was  right.  In  a  few  moments  they  returned 
with  specimens,  which  set  the  matter  at  rest. 


SAW-EDGED. 


r   TOOTH-EDGED. 


r    NOTCH-EDGED. 


Fig.  190. 


fine, 
sharp. 

pointed. 

V.  double. 

double, 
coarse, 
fringed, 
k.   thorny, 

pointed, 
round. 

fine. 
V^   double. 


SLOPE-EDGED. 
BAY-EDGED. 

FRINGE-EDGED. 


thorny. 


After  the  saw-edged  leaves  had  been  disposed  of,  the 
tooth-edged  ones  came  up  for  a  hearing,  then  the  notch- 
edged  followed,  and  so  on  through  the  whole  list.  In  one 
thing  the  teacher  acted  masterly.    He  made  the  pupils  sug- 


LEARNING  TO  DO  BY  DOING.  225 

gest  technical  terms,  and  usually  the  right  term  was  among 
the  ones  suggested ;  then  he  quickly  reviewed  all,  and  by  de- 
grees made  the  pupils  see  why  that  particular  term  was  the 
best  to  select.  Of  course,  it  found  the  sanction  of  the  class 
and  was  adopted.  It  took  about  an  hour  before  the  end  of 
the  lesson  was  reached.  At  the  close  of  the  lesson  I  was 
invited  to  pass  through  the  aisles  with  him,  and  have  a  peep 
at  the  work  done  by  the  pupils. 

Well,  I  must  pronounce  it  very  creditable  work  on  the 
whole,  far  exceeding  my  expectations.  I  selected  the  work 
of  a  sweet-looking,  modest  girl,  and  requested  her  to  let  me 
copy  it  for  my  readers  in  America.  She  looked  startled, 
when  I  explained  I  would  set  an  artist  to  work  to  make  an 
engraving  which  I  would  have  printed.  What  a  beam  of 
joy  shone  forth  from  those  dark-blue  eyes  !  And  the  teacher 
was  as  happy  as  a  rare,  a  very  i*are,  word  of  appreciation  and 
commendation  could  make  him.  He  suggested  that  Louise 
might  cut  this  leaf  out  of  her  book  and  present  it  to  me,  so  as 
to  save  me  the  trouble  of  copying  it.  Readily  the  request 
was  granted,  and  the  above  is  the  work,  dear  reader.  I  cut 
off  the  German  technical  words  and  substitute  their  litei*al 
translation  in  English.  I  was  invited  to  stay  and  hear  other 
lessons,  but  I  declined,  because  I  had  to  return  to  the  hotel, 
get  a  dinner,  and  be  ready  for  the  steamer. 

7.  Learning  to  do  by  Doing. 

I  struck  "  a  gold-mine  in  the  cellar,"  or  something  very 
much  like  it,  the  other  day.  When  entering  a  German 
school  I  found  the  teacher  giving  a  botany-lesson.  The  art 
of  sketching  quickly  was  here  developed  to  a  high  degree. 
I  begged  to  be  allowed  to  take  some  of  the  sketches  made  by 
pupils  for  the  purpose  of  having  them  cut  in  wood  and  thus 
presenting  them  to  American  readers.  The  request  was 
readily  granted. 

These  leaves  were  studied,  named,  classified,  and  then 
drawn  from  nature.  Some  of  them  are,  perhaps,  not  abso- 
lutely correct,  but  they  are  remarkably  "  life-like."    The  pu- 


226      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 


Figs.  191-201. 


TEACHING   COMPOSITIOX.  227 

pils  of  this  school  can  talk  in  pictures  better,  perhaps,  than 
in  words,  and  they  are  induced  and  urged  to  sketch  quite 
frequently.  Scarcely  a  lesson  is  given  without  some  oppor- 
tunity for  sketching.  It  was  amusing  to  see  a  boy  called 
upon  to  recite,  seize  a  pencil,  and,  while  talking,  assist  his 
demonstration  by  a  few  sketchy  lines. 

The  curriculum  of  this  school  does  not  contain  a  course 
in  drawing  which  necessitates  the  use  of  drawing-books  ; 
but  from  the  primer  class  through  all  the  stages  of  the  cur- 
riculum drawing  is  a  medium  of  recitation  just  as  talking 
and  writing  are.  To  give  an  outline  of  the  lessons  in  botany 
I  heard,  and  of  which  the  accompanying  sketches  of  leaves 
are  results,  would  be  useless,  since  they  diflFer  in  no  way  from 
rational  lessons  given  in  our  schools  in  America.  I  hope 
sincerely  that  the  reader  will  consider  these  sketches  worthy 
of  his  attention.  They  will  speak  louder  than  many  columns 
of  text. 

8.  Teaching  Composition. 

In  many  schools  of  Germany  I  find  a  consistent  course 
prescribed  for  exercises  in  composition.  Instead  of  detail- 
ing this  course,  I  prefer  to  state  the  principle  upon  which  it 
is  based.  It  starts  with  the  presumption  that  one  can  not 
prepare  a  good  beef-soup  without  meat  or  without  a  soup- 
bone — that  is  to  say,  thoughts  must  be  at  hand  to  express 
thoughts.  The  dressing  of  the  thoughts  may  vary  in  differ- 
ent compositions,  like  the  flavor  of  the  soups  in  different 
pots.  Individual  tastes  and  available  means  decide  that. 
Hence  all  practice  in  composition -writing  in  the  upper 
grades  is  based  upon  some  thought- bearing  study — that  is  to 
say,  each  composition  is  a  summary,  an  extract,  as  it  were, 
of  some  lesson  given  in  geography,  history,  botany,  zoology, 
physics,  etc.  Yea,  even  arithmetic  offers  suitable  subjects 
for  composition.  A  perfect  analysis  of  a  problem  worked 
out  orally  is  sometimes  fixed  in  writing,  and  the  teacher 
thus  hits  two  flies  with  one  stroke — he  fixes  in  the  minds  of 
his  pupils  a  logical  train  of  mathematical  thought  and  as- 
sists language  by  exercising  it. 


228      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

Such  a  composition  lesson  is  not  a  terror,  as  it  is  so  fre- 
quently in  schools  where  compositions  are  required  without 
the  wherewithal  to  make  them.  Abstract  topics  are  no  bet- 
ter than  no  thoughts  and  topics  at  all.  They  tell  a  disgust- 
ing story  of  the  women  in  a  tenement-house  in  Paris.  One 
of  them  called  to  her  neighbor  across  the  court-yard  to  lend 
her  her  ham-bone  for  a  soup.  Her  sick  husband  was  "  mor- 
tally bad  "  that  morning  and  needed  something  strong.  The 
answer  came  that  Madame  Somebodyelse  had  borrowed  it, 
but  as  soon  as  it  was  returned  it  would  be  at  madame's  dis- 
posal !  Every  time  I  see  an  attempt  at  making  compositions 
on  abstract  topics  foreign  to  the  children's  range  of  thought 
or  at  making  compositions  without  a  plentiful  array  of  facts, 
that  ham-bone  occurs  to  my  mind.  Whether  these  German 
teachers  ever  heard  that  ham-bone  story  is  immaterial.  One 
thing  is  certain,  their  pupils  make  compositions  upon  sub- 
jects with  which  they  are  familiar  and  express  thoughts 
which,  if  they  are  not  their  own  originally,  at  least  have 
become  their  own  by  mental  digestion  and  assimilation. 

The  pupils  learn  the  use  of  capital  letters  and  punctua- 
tion-niarks,  headings,  and  paragraphs,  etc.,  by  studying  these 
difficulties  in  their  readers.  Sometimes  a  perfect  piece  is 
put  on  the  board,  and  all  the  paraphernalia  of  composition 
are  carefully  reviewed — why  a  comma  is  placed  then  and 
there,  why  a  paragraph  here,  why  a  capital  there,  and  so  on. 
One  day — it  was  in  a  school  of  Thuringia — I  found  an  old 
joke  of  mine  (I  mean  a  joke  that  I  had  used  often).  On  the 
board  was  placed  the  following  stanza,  without  punctuation- 
marks: 

There  is  a  lady  in  our  land 

Who  has  ten  nails  on  every  hand 

Five  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet 

All  this  is  true  and  no  deceit 

The  children  were  allowed  to  laugh  at  these  lines  to  their 
hearts'  content,  until  one  of  them  suddenly  stopped  laugh- 
ing? grew  sober,  and  raising  his  hand  said,  "  Teacher,  I  know 
how  to  make  it  right."    The  teacher  allowed  him  to  do  it, 


TEACHING  COMPOSITION.  229 

and,  quickly  stepping  foi-ward,  he    punctuated  the   lines 

thus: 

There  is  a  lady  in  our  land 
Who  has  ten  nails,  on  every  hand 
Five,  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet. 
All  this  is  true  and  no  deceit. 

It  was  a  pleasure  to  see  the  disappointment  of  those  who 
"  hadn't  seen  it "  and  the  triumphant  mien  of  him  who  had. 
The  lines  were  allowed  to  remain  on  the  board  during  the 
lesson,  as  a  memento  of  the  importance  of  punctiiation- 
marks. 

Wherever  in  Germany  I  listened  to  a  lesson  in  history, 
botany,  or  some  other  thought  -  bearing  (hence  thought- 
awakening)  study,  the  teacher  wound  up  by  saying,  "  Now 
write  out  an  account  of  this  lesson."  This  was  done  in  the 
class-room  or  at  home  as  circumstances  determined.  The 
composition-books  I  saw  gave  evidence  of  the  fertility  of 
this  kind  of  instruction.  Not  every  comi)Osition  written  or 
prepared  is  entered  in  the  composition-book.  Many  are 
merely  written  on  the  slate  or  on  a  slip  of  paper ;  but  weekly, 
at  least,  one  is  recorded  on  the  pages  of  the  blank  book.  I 
saw  but  one  school  in  which  this  was  overdone,  namely,  in 
which  a  composition  was  written  in  the  book  every  day. 

It  seems  to  be  a  rule  here  to  correct  the  written  work  of 
the  pupils  with  red  ink ;  but  most  teachers  have  adopted  the 
universally  known  proof-reader's  marks,  which  not  only 
simplify  the  work  of  the  corrector,  but  also  require  of  the 
pupil  to  do  the  actual  correcting  himself. 

As  to  the  course,  I  only  need  to  say  that  it  begins  with 
copying  and  dictation  work  in  the  two  lowest  grades.  Then 
follows  free  reproduction  of  given  models,  such  as  fables. 
Thus  by  degrees  the  power  of  producing  is  strengthened,  un- 
til at  the  close  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  year's  course  the  pu- 
pils are  well  trained  in  gi"ving  an  account  of  a  story  they 
read,  or  write  out  a  description  of  a  scene  or  a  phenomenon 
they  saw,  or  reproduce  a  train  of  thoughts  developed  during 
a  lesson.     I  could  give  my  readers  a  very  convincing  proof 


230      FROM  VAKIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

of  the  good  results  of  this  work  by  copying  a  few  of  the 
compositious  from  the  books  I  inspected ;  but  even  the  least 
skeptical  of  my  patient  readers  might  suspect  me  of  having 
selected  exceptionally  good  work.  Besides  that,  as  a  matter 
of  self -evidence,  I  should  have  to  render  them  in  English, 
and  I  am  afraid  I  am  unable  to  imitate  their  "  pristine  youth 
and  beauty."  Cause  enough,  therefore,  to  resist  the  tempta- 
tion ;  but  let  me  ask  my  colleagues  to  try  the  experiment  of 
making  bouillon  of  a  soup-bone  with  marrow  in  it  and  a 
good  deal  of  meat  on  it. 

9.  Criterion  of  a  Model  Lesson. 

In  "  Lehrproben  und  Lehrgaenge  "  (a  publication,  men- 
tioned elsewhere  in  this  book)  a  number  of  questions  are  of- 
fered by  a  normal-school  teacher,  which  with  their  laudable 
conciseness  may  serve  as  test-questions  for  any  teacher  who 
does  not  consider  himself  finished  and  has  not  acquired  that 
self-sufficiency  which  is  the  arch-foe  of  all  progress.  I  will 
render  the  article  in  English,  hoping  to  meet  the  approval 
of  teachers  who  work  in  isolation  and  desire  a  reliable  stand- 
ard of  measurement : 

I.  Selection  and  An^angemewt  of  the  Matter  of  Instruc- 
tion. 

1.  Did  the  amount  of  matter  stand  in  proper  proportion 
to  the  given  time  ? 

2.  Was  the  matter  sifted  sufficiently,  arranged  in  method- 
ical unities,  and  well  distributed  ? 

3.  Was  the  disposition  apparent  and  transparent  ? 
n.  Mode  of  Treatment  {Method). 

1.  Was  a  consistent  and  suitable  method  pursued  ? 

a.  In  preparing  the  new  by  organic  connection  with  pre- 
vious cognitions  ? 

h.  In  bringing  forward  the  new  by  developing  it  from 
the  old  ? 

c.  In  bringing  it  to  a  clear  comprehension  by  means  of 
assimilation,  proofs,  consolidation,  and  review  ? 

d.  In  applying  it  by  practice  and  inculcation  ? 


DRAWING  IN  GERMAN  SCHOOLS.  231 

2.  Was  the  matter  offei*ed  objectively,  developed  logical- 
ly, worked  out  systematically,  practiced  sufficiently,  infixed 
lirmly  ? 

3.  Was  the  teacher's  mode  of  forming  questions  correct  ? 
Did  he  apply  the  principle  of  consolidation — ^that  is,  did  he 
establish  points  of  connection  with  other  domains  of  knowl- 
edge ?  Did  he  distribute  his  questions  well  among  his  pu- 
pils ? 

in.  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

1.  What  was  the  teacher's  attitude  ?  Was  he  vigorous, 
animating,  lively,  without  injuring  his  dignity  ? 

2.  Did  he  govern  his  class  with  the  power  of  his  eyes  and 
his  voice,  or  did  he  have  to  resort  to  "  heroic  means  "  ? 

3.  Was  his  language  correct,  well  articulated,  distinct, 
and  used  sparingly  ?    His  reading  perfect  ? 

IV.  Discipline. 

1.  Did  the  teacher  employ  the  whole  class  ? 

2.  Did  he  question  only  the  better  pupils,  or  did  he  g^ve 
too  much  of  his  time  and  energy  to  the  weaklings  ? 

3.  Did  he  employ  proper  means,  such  as  pauses,  speaking 
in  chorus,  rising,  bodily  exercises,  to  refresh  the  attention  ? 

4.  Did  he  correct  errors  or  transgressions  of  his  pupils,  or 
did  he  leave  them  unnoticed  ? 

V.  General  Results  and  Impressions  of  the  Lesson. 

1.  Was  a  decided  gain  noticeable  in  the  pupils — that  is 
to  say,  was  it  obvious  that  the  pupils  had  profited  by  the  les- 
son ? 

2.  Did  the  teacher  show  improvement  in  teaching  and  in 
discipline  ? 

3.  Did  the  lesson  appear  to  be  a  "  chance  lesson,"  or  was 
it  well  prepared  ? 

10.  Drawing  m  German  Schools. 

Whenever  I  had  the  chance  of  inspecting  the  instruction 
in  drawing  and  its  results,  I  took  especial  pains  to  inquire 
into  the  methods  applied.  Not  often  did  I  get  the  chance. 
Oh,  yes,  results  evidently  touched  up  by  the  teacher,  were 


232     FROM   VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

readily  shown,  but  rarely  did  I  see  a  drawing-class  in  op- 
eration. It  is  natural,  though,  for  according  to  the  old 
proverb,  it  is  "  A  fool  who  shows  half-finished  work."  I  sus- 
pect Superintendent  Bright,  of  Englewood  (Chicago),  111., 
sketched  the  truth  in  bold,  conspicuous  outlines,  when  he 
said  :  ''The  children  make  their  drawings,  and  we  revise 
them.  Then  they  draw  again,  and  we  revise.  Then  they 
draw  again.  Then  we  marshal  ourselves  before  the  super- 
intendent of  drawing  and  await  our  turns  like  candidates  at 
a  barber-shop,  in  order  that  our  re-revisions  may  be  revised 
by  the  highest  authority.  Then  the  children  take  another 
turn  at  the  drawing."  I  know  that  to  have  been  the  case  in 
Cincinnati,  and,  since  the  weaknesses  of  mankind  are  about 
the  same  everywhere,  I  could  fully  appreciate  the  Euro- 
pean teachers'  hesitancy  to  give  drawing-lessons  in  my 
presence.  But  a  little  obstinate  insisting  prevailed,  and  I 
can  now  judge  upon  the  methods  applied.  In  several  cit- 
ies I  found  the  old  copying  process  in  vogue — ^that  is,  flat- 
surfaced  copies  were  set  before  the  pupils,  and  they  copied 
them,  the  work  being  corrected  by  the  teacher,  who  passed 
slowly  through  the  aisles.  But  there  is  a  revolution  going 
on  in  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  common  schools  of 
Germany  as  well  as  America,  and  I  trust  the  movement  will 
be  successful. 

In  several  schools  of  Rhenish  Prussia  I  found  the  old 
method  discarded  contemptuously,  and  drawing  or  sketch- 
ing "  from  nature  "  substituted.  It  was  not  done  heedlessly, 
but  with  a  methodical  skill  truly  admirable.  I  have  neither 
time  nor  inclination  (the  space  of  a  book  would  be  needed) 
to  explain  minutely  the  first  steps  taken  ;  sufiice  it  to  say 
that  very  simple  geometrical  bodies,  such  as  cube,  pyramid, 
cone,  cylinder,  sphere,  etc.,  are  placed  before  the  class,  and 
each  child  is  made  to  draw  the  object  as  he  sees  it,  which 
affords  a  great  variety  of  views.  The  objects  are  made  of 
different  materials,  some  of  pasteboard,  many  of  wood 
painted  white,  a  few  of  plaster,  or  even  of  china. 

In  one  school  (in  the  province  of  Westphalia,  east  of 


DRAWING  IN  GERMAN  SCHOOLS. 


233 


Rhenish  Prussia,  where  I  stayed  a  few  days  with  an  old 
schoobnate  of  mine)  I  found  this  system  of  sketching 
"  from  nature  "  perfected  to  a  high  degree.  I  sketched  some 
of  the  objects  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  used  there  for 
the  benefit  of  my  readers  (Figs.  202-209).  These  were  made 
of  wood.    They  are  imitations  of  plant-stems  : 


Figs.  80a-209. 


The  following  objects  (Figs.  210-216)  were  made  of  milk- 
glass  or  china,  and  are  characteristic  forms  of  blossoms  ; 


Figs.  210-216. 


It  was  remarkable  to  see  the  results  exhibited  in  port- 
folios and  spread  out  for  inspection.  I  could  scarcely  re- 
press my  envy,  when  I  compared  such  results  with  the 
abortive  endeavors  of  the  pupils  under  the  deadening  influ- 


234     PROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

ence  of  the  copying  system  in  vogue  in  America.  In  a 
primary  school — fourth  school  year — the  teacher  had  a  num.- 
ber  of  leaves  which  he  exhibited  and  then  sketched  on  the 
blackboaixi,  showing  the  differences  in  form,  and  conven- 
tionalizing them  as  he  proceeded.     I  was  so  charmed  with 


FxGS.  217-230. 


his  skillful  treatment  that  I  sat  down  among  the  youngsters 
and  sketched  like  a  good  little  boy.  I  showed  my  work  to 
the  teacher — like  the  other  little  boys — and  was  gently 
praised  for  it.  Oh,  the  fun  that  caused  among  the  children  I 
I  submit  the  result  of  the  lessons  (Figs.  217-230). 


DRAWING   IN  GERMAN  SCHOOLS.  236 

What  a  splendid  preparation  for  the  study  of  botany  1 
What  a  beneficial  awakening  of  the  sense  of  form  !  What 
an  opportunity  for  obtaining  skill  in  the  use  of  the  utensils  ! 
I  can  well  understand  why  I  find  such  a  decided  opposition 
among  German  teachers  against  industrial  schools  as  spe- 
cial schools.  They  bend  all  their  energy  upon  making 
their  common  schools  the  best  on  earth,  and  are  willing, 
nay,  eager,  to  adapt  and  adopt  whatever  of  industrial  pur- 
suits can  be  adapted  to  and  adopted  in  their  course  of  study. 

All  branches  of  study  which  may  have  a  practical  bear- 
ing upon  life  are  made  to  reflect  life.  Thus,  not  only  draw- 
ing, but  geography,  is  made  practical,  the  latter  by  imagina- 
tive journeys.  Putty  and  clay  are  used  to  mold  geographical 
formations  in  imitation  of  nature.  Mensuration  is  made 
both  attractive  and  practical  by  handling  geometrical  bodies, 
not  merely  by  imagining  them.  They  are  made  of  paste- 
board, and  are  home-made  by  the  pupils — another  opportu- 
nity for  manual  occupation.  Kindergai'ten  occupations  I 
find  in  almost  general  use  in  the  lower  grades.  Of  course, 
much  more  advanced  work  is  done — in  modeling,  for  in- 
stance— than  is  done  in  a  Kindergarten. 

In  composition  work  I  find  lettei's,  notes,  bills,  receipts, 
petitions,  etc.,  written,  such  as  the  pupils  maybe  called  upon 
to  write  after  leaving  school.  Arithmetic  is  taught  ration- 
ally, and  the  problems  have  bearings  upon  the  child's  every- 
day experience.  In  one  school  a  lesson  in  buying  and  sell- 
ing greatly  interested  me.  One  boy  was  made  storekeeper, 
and  great  glee  was  occasioned  by  an  error  he  made  whereby 
he  lost  a  few  pennies  while  making  change.  This  lesson 
was  an  object-lesson,  it  was  a  language-lesson,  a  lesson  in 
arithmetic,  a  composition  and  reading  lesson — it  was  all  that 
and  more;  it  was  something  which  organically  connected 
school-work  with  life's  demands. 

Among  all  the  schools  I  have  visited  so  far — and  I  saw 
some  in  France,  some  in  Holland  and  Germany — ^I  am  ready 
to  pronounce  those  of  Lower  Rhenish  Prussia  the  most  ad- 
vanced in  methods  and  results.    But  it  is  perhaps  too  soon  to 


236      FROM   VARIOUS  OTHER   PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

discriminate,  having  really  only  begun  my  tour.  I  may 
greatly  change  my  opinion  after  having  seen  the  famous 
schools  of  Berlin  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 

I  must  not  burden  these  pages  with  reflections  upon  po- 
litical and  social  questions,  or  with  impressions  gained  by 
traveling  through  this  continent,  much  as  I  should  like  to, 
for  I  am  here  for  a  purpose,  and  these  articles  are  written 
for  a  purpose,  not  to  speak  of  the  amiable  reader's  disincli- 
nation to  read  a  guide-book.  I  think  it  due  to  myself  to 
state  this  fact. 

11.  Drawing  in  a  Country  School. 

The  teacher  of  a  small  country  school  I  visited  in  Ger- 
many seemed  to  be  an  inventive  genius  of  no  mean  kind, 
for  home-made  appliances  of  various  kinds  on  shelves  and 
on  the  walls,  on  desks  and  window-sills,  gave  evidence  of  it 
as  well  as  of  a  skill  in  workmanship  not  to  be  despised.  I 
noticed  a  number  of  geometrical  objects  (cubes,  pyramids, 
cones,  etc.),  made  of  white  pasteboard,  and  asked  whether  he 
taught  geometry.  "  No,  sir,"  said  he  ;  "  these  are  used  in 
drawing." 

My  curiosity  being  aroused,  I  asked  him  to  show  me  how. 
He  began  a  drawing-lesson  which  would  have  been  a  revela- 
tion to  many  teachers  who  follow  one  of  the  established  sys- 
tems of  copying  from  the  flat-surfaced  copy.  The  pupUs  did 
the  work  on  slates ;  drawing-books  seemed  to  be  non  est. 
The  teacher  placed  a  pyramid  before  the  class  and  asked 

the  pupils  to  draw 
one  side  of  it.  They 
drew  a  triangle  rap- 
idly but  very  neat- 
ly. Then  the  teach- 
er said,  "Complete 
the  figure  as  you  see  it.''''  These  (Fig.  231)  are  some  of  the 
results  as  I  sketched  them  in  my  note-book: 

Each  pupil  seeing  the  object  from  a  different  point  of 
view,  no  two  figures  were  alike,  but  each  was  a  correct  sketch 


Fia.  231. 


DRAWING  IN  A  COUNTRY  SCHOOL. 


237 


of  the  object  from  the  point  from  which  the  pupil  who  drew 
it  had  viewed  it. 

Then  a  cube  was  placed  before  the  class,  and  the  pupils 
drew  first  one  face — that  is,  either  a  square  or  a  parallelo- 
gram, according  to  the  pupil's  position.  After  that,  the 
other  visible  faces  of  the  cube  were  drawn,  as  each  pupil  saw 
them.    These  (Fig.  232)  are  a  few  of  the  results : 


?1  K 


Ol  ^ 


Fig.  232. 


Then  a  truncated  cone  was  drawn.  Of  course,  the  figure 
in  the  first  position  was  alike  in  all  cases,  until  the  cone  was 
placed  in  different  positions.  Here  (Fig,  233)  are  some  of 
the  sketches  I  saw: 


Fig.  233. 


Now  a  disk  followed  (Fig.  234)  in  different  positions: 


Fig.  234. 


After  that  followed  a  wheel,  a  cart,  a  box,  a  table,  and 
the  lesson  closed  with  the  drawing  of  a  house.  This  was 
drawn  from  dictation  (Fig.  235).  Thus  :  "Draw  a  rectangu- 
lar figure."  "Complete  a  block  by  dm  wing  the  right  and 
top  face."  "  Put  on  an  overhanging  roof,  and  erase  super^ 
fluous  lines,"  "Add  a  kitchen  to  your  house  in  the  rear." 
"Put  on  a  chimney,  and  provide  the  house  with  doors  and 


238      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN   PROVINCES. 

windows."  "Place  a  tree  and  a  pump  where  you  please.'" 
I  copied  the  work  of  a  sweet-looking,  flaxen-haired  girl  as 
minutely  and  as  accurately  as  I  could  do  it  on  a  small  scale, 
and  here  it  is: 


Fig.  235. 


I  do  not  wish  to  add  any  reflections,  sorely  tempted  as  I 
am  at  this  point,  but  I  must  say  that  the  pupils  did  this  work 
with  great  accuracy  and  skill,  and  that  they  seemed  to  enjoy 
doing  it.  The  slate-pencil  lines  were  easily  erased  in  case 
they  proved  inaccurate.  In  order  to  get  a  clear  view  of  the 
object  before  him,  the  pupil  would  shut  one  eye  and  keenly 
"  eye  "  the  object  before  he  drew  the  lines. 

"  Can  these  pupils  sketch  from  memory  ? "  I  asked. 
"Yes,"  was  the  reply,  "if  the  objects  are  not  too  compli- 
cated." "  Then  let  them  draw  a  candlestick  or  a  lamp."  It 
was  done.  The  figures  exhibited  were  different  from  each 
other,  some  were  faulty  in  perspective,  but  all  represented 
unmistakable  candlesticks,  or  lamps,  as  the  case  might  be. 
Other  objects  were  called  for,  and  a  few  seconds  sufficed  to 
sketch  them.  Then  the  teacher  asked  for  forms  of  leaves 
and  flowers,  but  I  noticed  that  he  refrained  from  calling  for 
forms  of  animals.  Justly  so,  I  thought ;  for  the  results  so 
far  shown  proved  to  be  more  than  satisfactory  for  a  country 
school  in  a  remote  mountain  hamlet. 


COMPULSORY   ATTENDANCE.  239 

This  little  school  appeared  to  me  a  real  gold-mine  of 
devices  and  methods  for  illustrating,  and  I  may  return  to  it. 

12.  Compulsory  Attendance. 

Except  those  in  Hamburg,  I  have  not  yet  seen  any  other 
than  Prussian  schools  in  Germany,  but  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  what  I  say  here  holds  good  in  all  other  German 
states  also.  The  daily  register  of  attendance  in  Prussian 
schools  is  a  valuable  legal  instrument;  in  fact,  it  makes  the 
schoolmaster  a  power  in  the  state.  Careful  keeping  of  this 
register  is  a  necessity  for  the  teacher,  not  on  account  of  the 
reports  he  has  to  make  to  superintendents  or  inspectors,  for 
very  few  statistical  reports  are  made  in  these  schools,  but 
with  this  daily  register  stands  or  falls  the  law  regarding 
compulsory  attendance. 

Whenever  a  pupil  is  mai'ked  absent  for  a  week,  inquiry 
is  made  as  to  the  causes.  If  a  valid  excuse  is  given,  well 
and  good.  But  if  a  willful  absence  is  noticed,  or  the  par- 
ents' authority  proves  inadequate,  or  if  the  parents  them- 
selves have  taken  it  into  their  heads  to  defy  the  law  by 
sending  their  child  to  the  factory  before  he  is  thirteen 
years  old,  the  teacher  reports  the  case  to  the  police  authori- 
ties with  an  exact  statement  of  the  number  of  days  of  ab- 
sence, and  there  is  no  "going  behind  the  returns." 

The  father  is  summoned  before  the  police  court  and  is 
called  upon  to  explain.  If  no  satisfactory  explanation  is 
forthcoming,  the  father  is  fined.  This  fine  is  increased 
twice  in  cases  of  backsliding,  and  finally  ends  in  imprison- 
ment. 

The  school  law,  I  understand,  makes  the  limit  of  com- 
pulsory attendance  eight  months  per  year,  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  thirteen.  If  there  is  a  case  found  of  inability  to 
send  children  to  school,  owing  to  extreme  poverty,  the  state 
or  community  provides  for  necessaries,  such  as  clothes, 
shoes,  books,  etc.  In  cases  of  defective  parental  authority, 
the  boys  are  sent  to  reform-schools.  In  cases  of  worthless- 
ness,  such  as  a  drunkard  father,  the  police  authorities,  of 
17 


240       TROM   VARIOUS   OTHER  PRUSSIAN  TROVINCES. 

which  the  justice  of  the  peace  is  one,  give  the  children  into 
custody  of  guardians,  who  act  in  loco  parentis  for  a  nominal 
remuneration,  provided  for  either  by  the  state  or  local  be- 
nevolent societies.  The  law  of  compulsory  education  works 
so  successfully  that  in  Rhenish  Prussia  not  three  tenths  of  one 
per  cent  of  the  young  men  called  in  for  military  service  are 
found  to  be  illiterate.     Verilj^,  the  whole  nation  is  a  school  ! 

13.  Home-made  Apparatus. 

We  have  certainly  made  commendable  progress  in  our 
common  schools,  especially  in  some  educational  centers.  Dr. 
Seeley  is  quite  right  in  saying  that  the  whole  foundation  of 
our  common  school  is  adapted  to  carry  a  greater,  loftier,  and 
more  substantial  structure  than  that  of  the  German  school. 
But  there  are  certain  features  in  German  schools  which  are 
worthy  of  imitation.  We  have  unquestionably  developed 
our  graded  school  systems  in  cities  to  a  high  degree,  but  the 
country  schools,  to  be  candid,  are  in  a  lamentable  state  of 
deficiency. 

How  different  in  Prussia,  and  I  suspect  in  other  German 
states,  where  the  country  school  is  doing  excellent  work, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  every  teacher  employed  is  either  a 
graduate  of  a  normal  school  or  college,  or  has  during  a 
searching  examination,  conducted  by  the  faculty  of  a  normal 
school  in  presence  of  the  school  inspector  of  the  province 
or  state,  proved  and  demonstrated  that  he  has  not  only  the 
required  knowledge,  but  also  the  ability  to  teach  clearly  ! 
Nowhere  among  the  four  great  civilized  nations  is  the  busi- 
ness of  education  in  country  schools  pursued  with  such  utter 
lack  of  systematic  preparation,  with  such  complete,  unsym- 
pathizing,  self-dependent  isolation  of  efforts  as  with  us  in 
America.  And  I  say  this  advisedly,  for  I  have  seen  enough 
country  schools  in  Ohio  and  other  States,  and  observed  their 
fruit  when  sent  to  the  city  schools  "  to  be  finished,"  to  know 
whereof  I  speak. 

It  is  with  an  unpleasant  sensation,  bordering  on  envy, 
that  I  observe  how  many  village  schools  here  in  Germany 


HOME-MADE  APPARATUS. 


241 


are  supplied  with  an  outfit  for  object-lessons  in  natural  his- 
tory, physics,  etc.  Many  teachers,  for  want  of  means  to 
purchase,  make  their  own  contrivances,  and  an  apparatus 
thus  procured  gives  to  the  instruction  an  impetus  which  can 
not  be  overrated.  I  have  in  mind  one  particular  school,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Solingen,  in  which  I  found  a  book-case 
with  glass  doors  filled  with  a  set  of  physical  apparatus  as 
complete  as  seemed  necessary  for  the  scope  of  physics  as  a 
study  can  have  in  a  country  school. 

A  few  of  the  pieces  had  been  bought  or  pi*ocured  by  a 
judicious  exchange  of  "  commodities,"  such  as  rare  birds  or 
plants,  but  most  of  them  were  made  at  home.  The  latter 
looked  clumsy,  but  were  very  serviceable ;  they  were  made 
of  such  material  as  was  at  the  disposal  of  the  maker.  I 
desired  to  sketch  the  whole  set,  to  show  the  ingenious  skill 
of  the  maker,  but  gave  up  the  task  when  I  thought  of  the 
space  it  would  take.  Only  two  contrivances  (see  cuts  below) 
may  be  shown.  They  were  rudimentary  hydrostatic  presses 
made  of  materials  indicated  below: 


Figs.  238,  237. 
a,  wood.  6,  e,  leather, 

c,  brass  rods,     d,  rubber  tube. 
/,  bowlder  or  weight. 


o,  boards.  b.  leather, 

c,  bamboo.       d,  tin  funnel, 
e,  rock  or  weight. 


Now,  the  impartial  reader  may  compare  this  with  the  in- 
describable poverty  of  most  of  the  countiy  schools  in  Ohio 


242      FROM   VARIOUS   OTHER   PRUSSIAN   PROVINCES. 

or  elsewhere,  especially  in  the  South,  where  school  trustees 
not  unfrequently  refuse  to  provide  the  school  with  a  black- 
board. Of  course,  every  picture  has  its  shadows,  and  so  per- 
haps has  this  bright  picture  of  a  German  country  school. 
Not  every  country  school  here  is  as  well  supplied  with  an 
enthusiast  as  this  one  ;  but,  judging  from  the  many  fine 
specimens  I  have  seen,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  as  to  all. 
I  may  safely  say,  without  danger  of  being  contradicted,  that 
the  average  German  teacher  is  imbued  with  professional 
spirit,  with  devotion,  energy,  and  natural  capacity  deserving 
the  most  cordial  praise. 

14.  "Our  Treasure-Box." 

In  a  school  in  Westphalia  I  found  a  cabinet  of  ebony- 
wood  hanging  on  the  wall.  It  was  elaborately  carved, 
and  appeared  to  me  a  piece  of  exquisite  workmanship.  An 
inscription  in  gilt  letters,  "  Our  Treasure-Box,"  indicated 
rather  obscurely  what  its  object  was.  The  teacher  explained 
it  to  me.  It  contained  the  school  registers  of  the  last 
seventy  years,  the  "  day-book  "  or  journal,  the  class  com- 
position-book, the  accounts  of  the  school  savings-bank,  and 
sundry  highly  valued  relics  connected  with  the  school's 
history. 

The  journal  is  a  book  for  daily  entries  of  cases  of  disci- 
pline, meritorious  cases  of  good  behavior,  and  excellent 
work.  The  "  primus  "  of  the  class,  the  best  pupil  in  studies 
and  conduct,  has  charge  of  it.  The  account-book  of  the 
school  savings-bank  is,  in  fact,  the  ledger  of  that  institution. 
The  teacher  receives  the  funds  in  the  form  of  pennies,  takes 
charge  of  them,  and  receipts  for  them  in  the  bank-books  of 
the  pupils.  Every  week  he  transfers  the  collected  funds  to 
the  city  bank,  where  the  whole  school  has  one  account.  Tho 
bank  pays  the  teacher  three  per  cent  for  sums  left  a  year, 
while  he  pays  two  per  cent  interest  to  the  pupils,  thus  giv- 
ing him  an  income  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars  a  year 
for  this  additional  trouble.  Any  one  who  is  acquainted 
with  the  low  salaries  paid  to  teachers  in  Germany  will  un- 


LOCAL  SCHOOL  MUSEUMS.  243 

derstand  that  twenty  dollars  additional  income  per  year  is 
an  item  not  to  be  despised. 

But  the  class  composition-book  claimed  my  attention 
most.  There  was  a  novel  idea,  and  I  hasten  to  submit  it  to 
my  readers.  The  school  wrote  a  composition  every  week. 
The  relatively  best  one  was  ordered  to  be  copied  into  this 
class-book,  which  was  thus  made  an  incentive  for  the  pupils 
to  do  good  work.  They  would,  as  it  were,  immortalize  them- 
selves on  the  leaves  of  this  gilt-edged  book.  At  the  same 
time  the  book  was  a  record  of  what  the  school  did,  not  only 
in  composition,  but  in  all  branches  of  study,  for  the  subjects 
were  chosen  from  the  matter  of  instruction  of  object-lessons 
treated  during  the  week. 

I  saw  some  excellent  penmanship  in  this  book,  and,  con- 
sidering that  these  were  childish  efforts  at  composition,  I 
think  them  very  commendable  thoughts  expressed  in  plain 
but  clean  garments. 

A  lady  of  this  town  who  did  fine  work  in  wood-carving, 
I  was  told,  had  presented  this  cabinet  to  the  school,  and  was 
at  the  time  at  work  in  making  a  pendant  to  it  which  they 
would  call  "Our  Medicine-Chest."  The  teacher  meant  to 
collect  in  it  such  medicines  and  chemicals  as  are  likely  to  be 
used  in  cases  of  emergency. 

15.  Local  School  Museums. 

The  teacher  who  presides  over  a  school  in  a  small  Grer- 
man  town  or  village  is  a  fijfture,  and  naturally  the  custodian 
of  the  school  museum.  Most  German  schools  have  a  muse- 
um— that  is,  a  book-case  or  two  full  of  books,  and  many 
shelves  full  of  objects  necessary  for  illustrating  the  instruc- 
tion in  natural  history,  geography,  physics,  etc. 

There  was  a  time  in  Grermany  when  the  principle  of  ob- 
ject-teaching electrified  every  schoolmaster  from  the  Rhine 
to  the  Vistula  and  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Alps.  It  was 
thought  that  objective  teaching  was  the  panacea  for  all  edu- 
cational diseases.  All  order  and  system  was  abandoned,  and 
objects  were  brought  into  the  school-room  till  it  looked  like 


244      FROil   VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

a  pawnbroker's  shop.  No  broken  horseshoe  was  left  lying 
in  the  street ;  old  boots  were  eagerly  gathered  for  the  leather 
they  yielded  ;  no  ant's  hill  was  safe  from  the  destmctive 
hand  that  gathered  ants'  eggs,  and  the  life  of  every  snail  in- 
nocently creeping  across  the  road  was  imperiled.  Every- 
thing was  carried  into  school — animals,  plants,  and  miner- 
als. There  the  objects  that  would  keep  were  neatly  labeled, 
numbered,  classified,  and  stored  up. 

The  children  had  good  times  then.  The  paper  boxes, 
moles'  skeletons,  minerals,  stuffed  birds,  samples  of  wood, 
dried  plants,  and  the  like,  went  from  hand  to  hand,  and,  to 
be  sure,  half  a  school-day  was  often  passed  in  contemplating 
the  treasures  of  the  museima ;  and  the  teacher  quieted  his 
conscience  by  thinking  this  to  be  an  object-lesson.  The  chil- 
dren were  also  taken  to  observe  the  cabinet-maker  ;  they 
went  to  the  locksmith's  shop ;  watched  the  shoemaker  and 
tanner  at  their  work ;  they  "  studied  "  all  the  different  kinds 
of  leather,  wool,  wood,  cloth,  and  metal  ;  they  knew  the 
name  of  every  tool — in  short,  they  failed  to  see  the  woods 
on  account  of  the  multitude  of  trees  ! 

Now,  this  was  a  craze.  To-day  the  fever  has  abated  con- 
siderably. A  reaction  followed,  and  to-day  the  school-chU- 
dren  in  some  places  have  not  the  remotest  idea  how  a  mUl 
or  a  foundry  looks  inside,  how  the  weaver  works,  and  the 
tanner  and  the  furrier,  etc.  The  museum  in  some  schools 
has  been  moved  to  the  garret,  and  all  the  many  objects  of 
interest  lead  a  contemplative  existence  in  closed  boxes  on 
shelves  and  under  a  cover  of  dust. 

If  the  teacher  needs  a  mineral,  or  an  au'-pump,  or  the 
Leyden-jars,  he  is  obliged  to  give  a  week's  notice  to  the  jani- 
tor, so  that  he  may  seai'ch  for  the  objects  and  make  them 
presentable.  The  swallow's  nest  and  the  ostrich-egg  yawn 
at  each  other.  The  miniature  plow  rests  securely  in  the  lap 
of  a  miniature  spinning-wheel,  and  both  play  the  role  of 
The  Sleeping  ^eauty.  The  spiders  have  covered  the  mole's 
skeleton  neatly  with  their  fine  threads,  and  the  dust  has 
changed  the  nets  into  a  gray  skin.    To  be  sure,  it  is  a  dreary 


A  PRUSSIAN  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  245 

spectacle.     As  the  first  wild  craze  was  one  extreme,  this  in- 
difference is  the  other. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  pendulum  swinging 
backward  and  forward  is  sure  to  come  to  rest  at  the  point  of 
a  golden  mean ;  and,  so  long  as  the  teachers  are  secure  in 
their  positions,  the  moss  gathered  in  the  form  of  museum 
collections  for  the  benefit  of  rational  objective  teaching  will 
accumulate.  When  I  compare  the  utter  absence  of  any- 
thing like  museums  or  libraries  in  our  schools,  I  heave  a 
sigh;  but,  when  I  recollect  the  insecurity  of  position  under 
which  our  teachers  in  America  are  suffering,  I  can  see  a 
complete  chain  of  cause  and  effect. 

16.  A  Prussian  Normal  School. 

Introduction. — In  previous  articles  I  have  taken  pains  to 
state  repeatedly  that  the  excellent  results  of  the  Prussian 
system  of  people's  schools  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  proper 
preparation  of  the  teachers.  The  teachers'  seminaries,  or 
normal  and  training  schools  as  we  are  accustomed  to  term 
them,  are  state  institutions.  With  the  exception  of  the  Au- 
gusta School  in  Berlin  and  a  few  similar  institutions  else- 
where, they  are  for  young  men.  Every  one  of  the  twelve 
provinces  of  Pinissia  (I  am  not  speaking  of  other  German 
states,  though  I  suspect  they  follow  the  Prussian  example) 
has  a  sufficient  number  of  such  special  schools.  They  re- 
ceive their  pupils  from  a  limited  number  of  preparatory 
schools  such  as  I  described  in  my  letter  from  Cologne.  All 
the  seminaries  in  Prussia  are  following  the  same  course  of 
study.  The  central  directive  power  is  found  in  a  depart- 
ment of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instmction  in  Berlin. 

Most  of  these  schools  are  situated  in  small  towns  of  four  to 
eight  thousand  inhabitants ;  indeed,  I  know  of  none  situated 
in  a  large  city  except  the  one  in  Berlin.  The  reason  of  this 
is  found  in  the  desire  to  keep  the  young  would-be  teachers 
free  from  the  temptations  of  a  large  city.  The  schools  are 
all  boarding  schools — that  is,  the  students  live  in  the  school- 
building  and  are  kept  tmder  rigid  control  all  day  long. 


246      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN   PROVINCES. 

Connected  with  the  institution  is  a  practice  department,  con- 
sisting of  an  entire  school  of  six  to  eight  grades,  in  all  of 
which  the  students  are  expected  tq  gain  their  experience  in 
teaching.  The  course  lasts  three  years,  and  is  divided  into 
an  academic  and  a  professional  department. 

The  Building. — I  took  occasion  to  thoroughly  inspect 
such  a  normal  school.  In  a  quiet,  sleepy  little  town,  con- 
nected by  railways  with  large  industrial  centers,  the  Gov- 
ernment had  erected  a  large  building  with  two  spacious 
wings  for  the  special  purpose  of  giving  the  normal  school  of 
the  district  a  suitable  home.  The  structure  is  very  fine,  and 
reminds  one  of  true  American  school  architecture.  It  is 
large,  handsome,  commodious,  well  ventilated,  and  sur- 
rounded by  extensive  yards  and  gardens.  The  stairs  and 
halls  are  covered  with  linoleum,  the  windows  are  generous, 
the  walls  delicately  tinted,  and  the  general  session-room 
(used  as  a  chapel)  decorated  with  beautiful  fresco  borders  and 
other  ornaments. 

Altogether  the  building  is  a  worthy  habitation  of  a 
teachers'  training-school,  particularly  because  it  impresses 
the  students  with  a  correct  idea  of  what  a  good  school-build- 
ing is  or  ought  to  be. 

Biblical  History. — I  passed  a  day  in  this  school,  and  was 
well  repaid  for  getting  up  at  six  o'clock  A.  M.,  on  a  raw 
winter  day,  traveling  an  hour  on  the  railway,  and  call- 
ing on  the  rector  before  eight  o'clock — that  is,  in  time  for 
opening  school.  The  first  lesson  I  heard  was  one  in  biblical 
history.  The  rector  had  announced  on  the  previous  day  that 
he  would  give  a  model  lesson  to  young  pupils,  in  presence 
of  the  senior  class  of  students.  I  begged  of  him  not  to 
change  the  programme.  Indeed,  it  was  a  model  lesson  in 
more  senses  than  he  had  understood  that  technical  term. 
How  I  wished  that  lesson  had  been  given  in  presence  of 
a  large  class  of  American  Sunday-school  teachers !  Subject 
of  the  lesson  was  :  The  wise  men  from  the  East  following 
tlie  star  and  coming  to  Jerusalem  to  inquire  of  King  Herod 
where  the  new-born  King  of  the  Jews  might  be  found ;  then 


A   PRUSSIAN   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  247 

being  told  to  go  to  Bethlehem,  and  there  findmg  Jesus,  giv- 
ing him  their  presents  and  worshiping  him. 

The  rector  told  the  whole  story  in  plain,  unassuming 
words  such  as  the  little  pupils  could  understand.  By  such 
simple  means  as  describing  the  mode  of  traveling  in  the 
East ;  the  poor,  modest  dwelling  of  the  Holy  Family,  etc., 
he  succeeded  in  creating  vivid  mental  pictures.  Then  he 
questioned  the  little  ones  on  a  part  of  the  story,  namely,  on 
the  journey  to  Jerusalem  and  the  inquiries  of  Herod.  The 
rector's  skUl  in  the  art  of  questioning  could  not  be  adequate- 
ly conveyed  except  by  a  stenographic  report.  After  this 
part  of  the  story  was  well  worked  over,  and  every  incident 
explained  or  called  forth  by  leading  questions,  two  pupils 
had  to  rei)eat  the  part,  and  they  did  it  with  singular  faithful- 
ness as  regards  facts  and  expressions.  Errors  of  speech 
were  corrected  on  the  spot,  but  never  in  a  humiliating  way, 
nor  so  that  the  thread  of  the  conversation  was  broken  or 
tangled. 

Then  the  second  part — Herod's  inquiries,  the  mention  of 
the  prophet  Micah,  the  journey  to  Bethlehem,  and  the  find- 
ing of  Jesus — followed.  In  this  part  of  the  story  the  insin- 
cerity of  Herod  and  his  evil  intentions  were  dwelt  upon, 
and  a  holy  horror  could  be  noticed  on  the  faces  of  the 
youngsters  when  they  heard  that  a  king  should  so  debase 
himself  as  to  say  one  thing  and  mean  another.  Again,  all 
the  minute  details  of  this  part  of  the  narrative  were  brought 
out  by  skillful  questioning,  and  the  answers  were  very  faith- 
ful, both  in  regard  to  facts  and  expressions.  Again,  as  be- 
fore, a  review  was  had  in  connected  repetition. 

The  third  part  was  treated  likewise,  and  here  the  presents, 
gold,  incense,  and  myrrh,  gave  rise  to  a  pretty  explanation, 
child-like  but  all-sufficient.  When  this  part  was  repeated,  a 
general  review  followed.  One  little  boy  told  one  part, 
another  the  second,  a  third  the  last ;  and  the  singular  faith- 
fulness with  which  they  repeated  whole  sentences  with  al- 
most identically  the  same  words  could  only  be  attributed  to 
the  consistency  with  which  the  rector  had  clung  to  these 


248      FROM   VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN   PROVINCES. 

expressions  all  through  the  lesson.  Then  he  wound  up  hy 
showing  a  handsome,  illustration  in  which  the  Holy  Family, 
the  wise  men,  the  servants,  the  camels,  the  star,  the  presents, 
etc.,  were  shown.  This  fixed  every  item  of  the  whole  stoiy 
in  the  memory  of  the  little  ones. 

All  through  the  masterly  lesson  the  seniors  sat  apparently 
with  bated  breath,  making  notes  now  and  then.  When  the 
little  ones  were  dismissed,  the  students  were  questioned  as  to 
what  they  had  heard.  Object  of  the  lesson,  means  employed, 
psychological  references,  methods,  principles  of  method — 
I  know  not  what  words  to  use  to  give  my  readers  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  how  that  model  lesson  was  dissected.  The  rec- 
tor gave  the  students  free  scope  to  express  their  judgment. 
It  seemed  to  me  that  if  any  of  these  young  men  did  not  take 
away  treasures  of  knowledge,  of  skill  in  handling  a  class, 
and  methodical  treatment  of  matter,  it  certainly  was  not  the 
fault  of  the  rector  and  his  youngsters. 

Literature. — The  second  lesson  I  heard  was  a  lesson  in 
German  literature.  It  began  with  the  reading  of  a  compo- 
sition upon  Lessing's  "  Minna  von  Barnhelm,"  the  first  dis- 
tinctly German  drama.  Though  the  diction  of  the  student 
was  faulty  at  times,  the  composition  was  unquestionably  an 
original  effort  of  rare  merit.  The  professor  (not  the  I'ector) 
proceeded  in  his  criticism  with  that  delicacy  which  is  the 
distinctive  sign  of  a  thorough-bred  gentleman.  It  was  ob- 
vious that  the  most  friendly  relations  existed  between  him 
and  the  students.  Nevertheless,  he  spoke  very  much  to  the 
point,  and  the  students  assisted  him  in  correcting  with 
praiseworthy  zeal. 

The  vistas  which  were  opened  to  the  students  in  the  realm 
of  German  literature  were  wide  and  pleasant.  There  was 
nothing  of  that  gnawing  at  the  shell,  or  of  that  splitting  of 
hairs,  which  is  sometimes  observed  in  the  teaching  of  litera- 
ture, where  the  students  never  get  to  see  the  forest  on  ac- 
count of  the  multitude  of  trees.  In  short,  the  lesson  was 
characteristic,  inasmuch  as  it  was  free  from  that  petty  annoy- 
ing criticism  indulged  in  where  conformity  with  the  exact 


A  PRUSSIAN  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  249 

text  of  the  book  is  the  criterion  of  successful  study.  This 
professor  was  a  master  in  the  art  of  questioning,  such  as  I  had 
rarely  met  in  my  life.  Altogether  the  lesson  left  a  pleasant 
impression,  and  I  concluded  that  the  students  would  later  in 
life  do  very  well  to  copy  their  teacher. 

Natural  History. — The  next  lesson  I  heard  was  one  in 
zoology,  and  here  again,  as  so  often  in  Germany,  I  saw  the 
principle  illustrated  that  observation  is  the  foimdation  of 
cognition.  Birds  were  studied  like  that  pi*overbial  fish  of 
Agassiz.  Stuffed  birds  were  available  in  large  number  ; 
colored  pictures  assisted  where  objects  were  wanting,  and 
the  lesson  proceeded  as  one  would  wish  every  lesson  in  zoology 
to  proceed  :  1.  Actual  observation  established  percepts  ;  2. 
Several  of  these  formed  concepts ;  3.  These  then  were  grouped 
by  collecting  the  essentials  and  dropping  minor  items  to 
establish  clear-cut  ideas.  The  latter  were  well  expressed. 
When  a  number  of  them  were  available,  conclusions  were 
drawn  from  them.  Thus  the  process  of  gathering  knowl- 
edge and  strengthening  the  thinking  power  was  successfully 
exemplified.  Some  of  the  steps  taken  were  superfluous,  it 
seemed  to  me,  in  a  class  of  adults,  but  it  was  the  evident 
desire  of  the  professor  to  make  these  young  men  learn  in 
precisely  the  way  in  which  they  are  to  cause  young  children 
to  learn  afterward. 

It  was  with  much  curiosity  that  I  heard  the  students  state 
their  observations  of  domestic  birds.  We  are  very  apt  to 
think  that  we  know  all  about  them,  and  that  in  zoology  the 
attention  should  be  directed  to  the  birds  which  the  children 
are  never  likely  to  see.  This  lesson  converted  me  tx)  the 
opinion  that  we  know  much  less  of  domestic  birds  than  we 
think  we  do.  It  was  with  much  curiosity  that  I  heard  the 
students  state  the  diflFerence  in  the  mode  of  drinking  between 
pigeons  and  chickens,  to  wit,  that  the  pigeon  sucks  water  by 
keeping  its  beak  almost  closed  and  causing  a  vacuum  in  the 
throat,  while  the  hen  dips  or  ladles  water  with  the  lower  part 
of  the  beak,  and  then  raises  its  head  to  let  the  water  run 
down  into  the  craw.    The  causes  were  looked  for  and  found 


250      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

in  the  peculiar  build  of  the  beaks  of  the  diflFerent  biinls. 
Monogamy  among  the  pigeons,  polygamy  among  the  fowls ; 
the  peculiar  flight  of  pigeons,  swallows,  and  other  birds, 
which  was  traced  to  the  form  of  the  wings  and  feathers ;  and 
various  other  things  of  great  interest  were  brought  out,  all 
of  which  gave  opportunity  for  tracing  effect  back  to  cause, 
and  to  judge  from  cause  to  effect. 

This  kind  of  instruction  is  very  interesting,  and  as  dif- 
ferent from  the  old-time  zoology-lessons  as  day  is  from 
night.  No  text-book  in  zoology,  botany,  or  mineralogy  was 
used,  but  each  pupil  had  an  atlas  which  contained  at  least 
several  thousands  of  exquisite  illustrations  of  natural  ob- 
jects, accompanied  by  a  few  pages  of  print  containing  a  table 
of  contents  and  a  key  to  pronunciation. 

I  have  but  one  fault  to  find  with  this  and  one  other 
teacher,  in  the  institution.  They  were  overbearing,  and 
would  humiliate  a  student  for  a  slight  slip  of  the  tongue. 
This  seems  to  be  a  general  fault  in  normal  schools  in  Ger- 
many. Whether  it  is  done  intentionally,  in  order  to  make 
the  young  teachers  as  humble  as  possible,  or  what  is  the 
reason,  I  don't  know.  But,  if  that  is  the  real  motive,  it  has 
the  opposite  effect,  for  nowhere  have  I  found  a  more  fearless 
set  of  teachers  than  here  in  Prussia.  One  cause  of  this  fear- 
lessness may  be  the  fact  that  there  is  a  scarcity  of  teachers 
at  present,  of  which  more  anon. 

Drawing. — The  drawing-lesson  I  saw  was  poor,  and  the 
results  meager.  This  department  was  evidently  the  weakest 
point  in  the  institution. 

Music. — A  lesson  on  the  church-organ  I  heard  gave  me 
a  fair  sample  of  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  students 
are  prepared  for  organist's  service  in  church.  Each  student, 
as  his  turn  came  to  play  a  hymn,  was  told  to  play  a  prelude 
of  his  own  composition.  Thus,  for  instance,  if  the  hymn 
was  written  in  D  major,  he  would  start  in  E  major,  and,  by 
way  of  septime-chords,  try  to  reach  D  through  A.  Or,  be- 
ginning at  C  major,  he  would  go  upward  through  D  into  G, 
and  then  through  A  into  D.    These  were  some  of  the  easiest 


A  PRUSSIAN  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  251 

preludes.  This  practice  made  the  young  men  free  and  easy 
at  the  instrument.  But  the  pedal  proved  full  of  pitfalls,  as  it 
naturally  will  to  beginnei*s.  After  three  years  of  daily  prac- 
tice, good  results  are  obtained. 

Geography. — Then  followed  a  lesson  in  geography,  in 
which  a  professor  illustrated  the  principle  of  concentric  in- 
struction, by  drawing  into  this  lesson  history,  physics,  me- 
teorology, etc.,  and  thus  making  the  lesson  have  connection 
with  many  other  branches  of  study.  Through  all  my  visits 
in  German  schools  I  had  not  had  the  chance  of  hearing  a 
lesson  in  the  geography  of  the  United  States.  Here  luck 
favored  me,  and  my  readers  may  imagine  my  pleasure 
when  I  heard  Washington  pronounced  Uashington,  and  not 
Vashington ;  New  York,  not  Noy  York ;  Maine,  not  Mine, 
etc.  It  was  a  very  pleasant  surprise  to  me.  I  inquired 
whether  the  teacher  spoke  English,  and,  upon  receiving  a 
negative  answer,  I  inquired  how  it  came  that  he  pronounced 
the  English  and  American  geographical  names  correctly. 
The  answer  was  : 

"  We  ai*e  careful  in  looking  up  the  pronunciation,  for  we 
insist  upon  pronouncing  each  name  correctly.  As  there  can 
be  but  one  correct  pronunciation  of  the  name  of  the  river 
Spree,  namely,  Spray  (else  Berlin  would  be  constantly  '  on  a 
spree '),  so  there  can  be  but  one  correct  pronunciation  of  Ohio, 
namely,  Ohio,  not  Oheeo,  as  we  Germans  might  be  tempted 
to  pronounce  it.  We  are  aware  of  the  fact  that  English- 
speaking  nations  anglicize  all  geographical  names.  This  we 
consider  wrong.  We  follow  the  golden  rule,  'Do  as  you 
would  be  done  by.'  Of  course,  ignorance  may  excuse  a 
man's  mispronunciation ;  but  a  teacher  who  pleads  the  baby- 
act,  by  claiming  not  to  know  how  Frenchmen  pronounce 
their  geographical  names,  or  Americans  theirs,  deserves  to 
be  dismissed." 

A  review  of  the  political  geography  of  the  Union  led  to  a 
historical  outlook  upon  its  rapid  growth,  and  there  teacher 
and  pupils  revealed  a  familiarity  with  American  history 
which  brought  the  lamentable  ignorance  of  the  average 


252      FROM   VARIOUS   OTHER   PRUSSIAN   PROVINCES. 

American  teaclier  regarding  German  history  into  bold  relief. 
Our  almost  insular  isolation  makes  us  rather  exclusive,  and 
it  is  well  to  call  attention  to  it,  and  make  us  measure  our- 
selves by  the  standards  of  others.  As  a  rule,  I  find  less 
ignorance  concerning  America  among  teachers  in  Germany 
than  among  French  teachers — a  statement  which,  I  trust,  is 
readily  believed.  The  teacher  in  this  grade  was  a  gentle- 
man of  the  highest  type,  who  treated  his  students  like  gen- 
tlemen, and  never  intentionally  or  otherwise  wounded  their 
sensibilities. 

Arithmetic. — Then  I  heard  a  lesson  in  arithmetic.  Per- 
centage was  the  subject  of  discussion.  Problems  were  solved 
orally  with  a  rapidity  which  fairly  left  me  behind.  I  asked 
permission  to  put  a  few  questions  to  the  students,  and  among 
other  things  asked  them  to  tell  me  how  they  would  begin 
the  study  of  percentage,  and  at  what  stage  in  the  course. 
The  answer  was  very  gratifying,  to  wit,  expressions  couched 
in  the  term  per  cent  might  be  taught  in  connection  with 
reduction  of  fractions.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  children 
might  be  taught  that  one  fourth  is  equal  to  twenty-five  hun- 
dredths, or  twenty-five  parts  of  one  hundred.  The  subse- 
quent practice  of  percentage  would  thus  receive  an  early 
foundation.  The  professor  in  this  room  was  rather  harsh, 
and,  like  many  mathematicians,  punctilious,  but  not  unfair 
nor  overbearing. 

Daily  Programme.  —  As  I  passed  through  the  hall,  I 
copied  the  characteristic  items  of  the  daily  programme  to 
give  my  readers  a  fair  sample  of  how  to  get  sixteen  hours' 
work  out  of  twenty-four: 

6      — 6.30.  Rising,  dressing,  washing. 

6.30—7.30.  Preparing  lessons  under  supervision. 

7.30—7.50.  Breakfast. 

7.50 — 8.        Opening  exercises  in  chapel. 

8     — 1.        Lessons  and  experimental  teaching. 

1     —1.30.  Dinner. 

1.30 — 2.        Playing  and  walking  in  the  grounds, 

.3     — 5.       Lessons  in  academic  department. 


A  PRUSSIAN  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  253 

5  — 6.        Practice  in  instrumental  music. 

6  — 1.        Outside  exercises. 

7  —7.30.  Supper. 

7.30 — 9.30.  Working  in  class-rooms  under  supervision. 

9.50 — 10.      Evening  prayer. 

10.  Turning  into  bed. 

Scarcity  of  Teachers. — One  thing  seemed  to  me  incon- 
gruous. The  building  was  designed  to  accommodate  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  twenty  resident  students,  but  there 
were  only  forty-two  enrolled.  Inqmries  I'evealed  the  fact 
that  all  the  royal  seminaries  were  suffering  from  want  of 
students.  In  this  institution  thirty-five  to  forty  could  have 
been  admitted  last  year,  but  only  twenty-three  had  presented 
themselves  for  admission,  and  of  these  only  seventeen  had 
pix)ved  competent.  The  young  men  do  not  see  why  they 
should  sacrifice  their  whole  life  on  the  altar  of  popular  edu- 
cation for  800  to  1,000  marks  (^200  to  $250)  a  year.  Prussia 
needs  more  teachers,  and  they  do  not  come  unless  paid  better. 
Since  Germany  has  made  such  wonderful  forward  strides  in 
all  domains  of  art  and  industrial  pursuits,  young  men  can 
earn  more  in  other  professions ;  and  it  is  not  a  mercenary 
motive  either  which  makes  them  shun  the  teacher's  profes- 
sion, though  much  work  and  responsibility,  and  poor,  nig- 
gardly pay,  are  causes  enough  to  frighten  away  even  the 
mast  willing  of  young  men. 

A  groat  number  of  country  teachers  in  Silesia  and  other 
provinces  are  paid  810  marks  per  annum,  and  free  rent  and 
fuel — total,  a  little  more  than  1,100  marks,  or  $275.  It  is 
literally  impossible  for  a  family  to  live  on  such  a  pittance. 
After  twelve  years  of  service,  an  additional  sum  of  60  marks 
($15)  is  paid,  after  twenty  years  180  marks  ($45),  making  a 
maximum  of  $320.  In  cities,  of  course,  the  salaries  are  bet- 
ter. They  usually  have  a  fixed  scale,  which  increases  from 
800  to  2,000  marks  ($200  to  $500).  This  explains  why  the 
country  teachers  flock  to  the  cities.  The  number  of  appli- 
cants for  places  in  cities  is  incredible.  In  Frankfort-on-the 
Main  a  rectorship  with  a  somewhat  reasonable  salary  be- 


254      FKOM  VARIOUS   OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

came  vacant  lately,  and  no  less  than  487  applicants  offered 
their  services ! 

How  necessary  an  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers  in 
Prussia  is,  may  be  seen  from  these  numbers :  In  one  prov- 
ince alone  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  people's  schools  is  682,- 
139,  while  the  number  of  teachers  is  only  7,959 ;  this  gives  85 
to  86  pupils  to  the  teacher.  Yes,  in  densely  settled  districts 
the  number  of  pupils  in  many  school-rooms  varies  between 
100  and  110.  The  Government  tries  various  experiments  to 
increase  the  number  of  teachers,  but  so  long  as  the  only  real 
inducement — better  pay — is  not  resorted  to,  all  palliative  rem- 
edies will  be  of  no  avail.  Lowering  the  conditions  of  admis- 
sion to  normal  schools  is  not  a  means  to  be  recommended, 
and  founding  preparatory  schools  will  prove  futile ;  for  as 
soon  as  the  young  men  are  old  enough  to  have  their  eyes 
opened  to  the  fate  that  is  awaiting  them,  they  will  desert,  and 
enter  business  or  industrial  schools.  It  is,  indeed,  a  sign  of 
the  times  when  one  sees  the  number  of  pupils  in  industrial 
schools  increase  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  schools,  and  the 
seminaries  empty.  The  Government  can  no  longer  be  blind 
to  that  fact.  And  now  that  Prussia  has  entered  the  happy 
family  of  states  which  liquidate  their  national  debts,  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Prussian  Government  will 
begin  to  alleviate  the  starving  condition  of  the  teachers. 

17.  Three  Kinds  of  Conferences. 

The  principal  of  a  normal  school  I  inspected  held  confer- 
ences with  his  students  outside  of  the  hour  reserved  for  aca- 
demic studies.  These  meetings  were  so  full  of  interest  that 
the  students  would  rather  have  suffered  martyrdom  than 
stayed  away  from  them.  There  were  three  kinds  of  confer- 
ences he  held  with  his  students : 

I,  Practicum. — In  the  conference  thus  called  the  young 
would-be  teachers  submitted  plans  of  the  lessons  they  were 
going  to  give  in  the  practice  department.  They  were  either 
sketched  in  outlines  only,  or  painfully  worked  out  in  every 
detail.     These  dispositions  were  submitted,  and  the  master 


THREE  KINDS  OF  CONFERENCES.  255 

would  suggest  an  improveraent  here  and  there,  or  would 
submit  a  difference  of  opinion  to  the  decision  of  the  class,  but 
he  could  never  be  brought  to  an  expression  of  his  judgment 
as  to  the  practicability  or  impracticability  of  the  plan.  He 
held  that  "  the  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating  thereof." 
These  meetings  had  the  advantage  of  letting  the  entire  class 
know  what  each  student,  as  his  turn  came,  intended  to  do. 
When  the  lessons  were  given,  the  class  again  met  under  the 
supervision  of  the  master  and  in  presence  of  the  model  teach- 
ers of  the  school.     This  second  lesson  was  called  the 

n.  Criticum. — Now  the  lessons  given  were  criticised  and 
the  master  took  care  that  not  an  unpleasant  allusion  was 
made,  not  a  word  was  uttered  which  might  in  any  way 
tend  toward  wounding  the  feelings  of  the  student  whose 
lesson  was  under  discussion.  The  students  were  not  spar- 
ing with  their  criticism,  but,  if  any  one  proved  unable  to  base 
his  criticism  on  a  well-understood  principle,  he  was  told  not 
to  let  his  emotions  run  away  with  his  judgment.  When  the 
students  had  had  their  say  (sometimes  it  was  approval  and 
even  warm-hearted  praise),  the  practice  teachers  gave  their 
opinion,  after  which  the  master  summed  up  and  generalized 
the  points  gained.  The  criticum  I  heard  was  perhaps  more 
exciting  than  most  others,  since  two  students  got  into  a 
heated  discussion  as  to  the  value  of  certain  methods,  and 
each  claimed  that  his  interpretation  of  the  principle  was  cor- 
rect. When  the  master  afterward  interpreted  the  principle, 
and  in  a  logical  train  of  thought  convincingly  proved  that 
neither  of  the  two  had  clearly  comprehended  the  principle, 
the  occurrence  gave  rise  to  some  hilarity.  The  third  kind  of 
conferences  held  in  this  normal  school  was  the 

in.  Scholasticum. — It  was  held  with  the  faculty  and  the 
students,  and  consisted  of  lectures  given  by  the  master. 
These  were  invariably  professional,  and  gave  rise  to  fruitful 
discussion.  Most  of  them  have  been  published,  and  they 
have  created  much  comment  and  well-deserved  praise.  The 
normal  school  in  which  these  conferences  are  in  vogue  is  a 
school  of  national  fame. 
18 


256      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

18.  Object-Lessons  and  Sketching. 

The  reader  will  remember  that  I  dwelt  at  length,  in  one 
of  my  previous  chapters,  upon  the  sketching  done  in  Ger- 
man schools,  and  stated  that,  though  no  regular  daily  lesson 
in  sketching  was  given,  it  was  part  of  every  lesson  which 


Fig.  238.— The  Garden. 

needed  illustrating.  I  offered  a  few  samples  of  pupils' 
work,  and  desire  now  to  still  further  illustrate  my  statement 
by  samples.  Object-lessons  without  objects  are  like  the 
play  of  "  Hamlet "  with  Hamlet  left  out,  or  like  a  bladeless 
knife  that  has  no  handle.  I  have  seen  or  listened  to  such 
lessons  here  in  G-ermany  and  in  America,  though  rarely. 


OBJECT-LESSONS  AND  SKETCHING. 


257 


Usually  the  teacher  has  something  tangible  to  begin 
with,  be  it  a  twig  and  a  few  leaves  with  which  to  give  a 
lesson  on  the  woods ;  be  it  a  pot-plant  for  a  lesson  on  garden- 


FiQ.  239.— The  Field. 


ing,  or  a  stalk  of  com  for  a  lesson  on  fields.  From  that  he 
branches  out,  and  by  means  of  the  crayon  enlarges  the  cir- 
cle of  observation  and  asks  the  pupils  to  sketch  the  objects 


258      FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

as  he  goes  along.  Some  of  these  efforts  on  the  part  of  the 
children  are  mediocre,  but  most  are  quite  commendable,  and 
betray  a  skill  not  to  be  despised. 


Fig.  240.— The  Woods. 


MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS.  259 

One  day  I  visited  a  school  where,  to  my  amazement, 
there  were  four  blackboards.  Usually  the  authorities  fur- 
nish only  one,  about  four  by  five  feet.  The  boards  I  saw 
here  were  a  new  contrivance.  They  consisted  of  huge 
plates  of  black  glass,  ground  so  as  to  facilitate  the  writing 
and  prevent  the  reflection  of  the  light.  Three  of  these 
boards  were  covered  with  sketches,  which,  I  was  told,  were 
used  and  made  during  the  lessons  on  objects  and  common 
things  and  in  language  -  lessons.  They  were  simple,  but 
very  characteristic  and  easy  to  draw.  I  inquired  whether 
they  were  original. 

The  teacher  said :  "  No,  sir ;  I  copied  them  from  a  book 
on  objective  teaching  by  E.  Jordan,  teacher  in  the  practice 
department  of  the  city  normal  school  at  Vienna.  I  own  I 
am  not  a  handy  draughtsman,  and  therefore  help  myself  as 
well  as  I  can,  for  to  give  object-lessons  without  frequent 
sketching  would  be  absurd." 

Now,  I  am  not  an  artist  myself,  but  I  venture  to  copy 
some  of  the  numerous  simple  models  given  in  that  book,  and 
I  group  them  exactly  as  the  teacher  had  grouped  them  on 
his  boards.  One  group  was  called  "  The  Garden,"  the  second 
"The  Field,"  and  the  third  "The  Woods"  (see  Figs.  238-240). 

It  is  easy  to  trace  the  course  which  the  teacher  had  gone 
with  his  class  through  garden,  field,  and  woods,  by  looking 
at  these  sketches.  The  group  entitled  "The  "Woods"  was 
very  fine.  I  asked  to  see  the  pupils'  copies,  and  their  slates 
were  produced,  and  lo !  here  for  the  first  time  in  Germany  I 
saw  double  slates  in  use.  Very  neat  and  accurate  were  the 
sketches  of  these  youngsters,  who  were  in  their  second  and 
some  in  their  third  school  year. 

19.  Miscellaneous  Observations. 

It  is  not  easy  to  go  through  the  schools  of  a  foreign  coun- 
try, appear  interested,  and  yet  search  critically  for  good 
and  bad  points  without  losing  the  confidence  of  your  hosts. 
However,  not  one  of  the  many  teachers  I  saw  at  work  in 
Germany,  France,  and  Holland  objects  to  me  as  a  reporter. 


260     FROM  VARIOUS  OTHER  PRUSSIAN  PROVINCES. 

My  note-book  is  brought  into  requisition  only  when  a  sketch 
is  to  be  made,  and  I  do  that  in  such  an  unostentatious  way 
that  it  does  not  irritate  the  teachers ;  but  the  first  thing  I  do 
after  getting  to  my  hotel  is  to  note  down  the  leading  points 
of  criticism,  or  those  of  a  lesson  or  of  a  conversation  held 
with  teachers,  I  find  my  memory  very  faithful.  It  retains 
interesting  matter,  and  loses  unimportant  things  as  though 
it  were  a  sieve. 

I  will  close  this  chapter  with  a  few  stray  ears  that  I 
glean  from  various  pages  of  my  note-book. 

Nowhere  in  Europe  do  I  find  daily  marking  of  lessons 
resorted  to.  The  teachers  are  not  marking-machines,  but 
are  earnestly  engaged  in  teaching,  helping,  suggesting,  ask- 
ing, directing,  watching,  etc.  There  is  a  total  absence  of 
that  detestable  immoral  competition  which  so  often  plays 
havoc  with  our  pupils  in  America.  Reports  (Zeugnisse,  tes- 
timonials) are  sent  home  at  the  close  of  every  term  ;  but 
they  express  the  grades  of  the  pupils  in  such  terms  as  very 
good,  good,  satisfactory,  poor,  very  poor,  or  similar  ones. 
The  prevalence  of  such  terms  as  "  very  good  "  and  "  excel- 
lent" stamps  the  report  No.  1.  If  the  greater  number  of 
submarks  is  good  and  mediocre,  it  is  called  No.  2,  and  so  on. 
Reports  such  as  are  given  out  in  America,  that  express 
shades  of  differences  by  tenths  of  a  per  cent,  are  wholly  un- 
known here. 

Blackboards  I  find  fixed  in  grooves  like  window-sashes, 
hung  by  weights,  so  that  they  may  be  adjusted  to  the  height 
of  the  pupil  at  work  before  them.  In  some  schools  I  find 
the  board  standing  on  easels,  but  rarely  are  the  walls  changed 
into  blackboards,  though  the  cumbersome  easel  is  being 
done  away  with  in  most  places.  The  long,  slender,  dustless 
crayons  used  in  America  are  found  here  also ;  but  in  some 
country  schools  I  noticed  chunks  of  chalk  just  as  they  were 
broken  out  of  the  quarries. 

In  France  I  saw  one  school  in  which  the  children  used 
no  slates.  The  tops  of  their  desks  were  white  marble,  and 
the  children  wrote  with  soft  lead-pencils,  thus  avoiding  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBSERVATIONS.  261 

injury  to  the  eyes  resulting  from  writing  on  black ;  but  the 
marble  tops  needed  thorough  cleansing  and  an  occasional 
renewal.  I  am  afraid,  though,  that  if  our  Young  Americans 
had  marble  tops  on  their  desks,  they  would  have  to  be  re- 
placed "  semi-occasionally." 

In  many  villages  in  France,  Holland,  Lower  Rhenish 
Prussia,  and  Westphalia,  I  find  the  children  coming  to 
school  in  wooden  shoes,  which  are  placed  in  a  row  in  the 
corridors  or  slipped  under  a  low  shelf.  In  school  the  chil- 
dren sit  with  bare  feet.  In  winter  they  wear  these  wooden 
shoes  over  their  leather  ones,  and  even  line  them  with  straw 
or  hay  to  keep  the  feet  warm.  Many  of  these  pupils  are 
obUged  to  walk  great  distances  to  reach  school. 

Silentium  !  Silence-hour.  An  odd  name,  is  it  not  ?  But 
an  appropriate  one,  as  we  shall  see.  In  large,  crowded  cities 
(and  there  seems  to  be  a  big  town  at  every  turn  of  the  road 
here  in  Rhenish  Prussia)  many  children  come  from  homes 
where  quiet  mental  work  is  impossible.  Tenement-houses 
are  very  frequent.  Home  lessons  can  not  be  expected  un- 
less the  conditions  of  undisturbed  work  are  offered.  The 
teachers  of  some  high-schools  solve  this  difficulty  by  alter- 
nately spending  one  hour,  from  7  tQl  8  P.  M.,  at  the  school- 
house  and  helping  the  pupils  prepare  their  home  lessons. 
This  hour  is  called  silentium  (silence).  No  pupil  is  permit- 
ted to  talk  aloud  ;  only  whispering  is  allowed.  When  the 
noise  increases  beyond  regulation  height,  the  teacher  shouts, 
"  Silentium  !  "  and  the  noise  subsides  to  a  mere  humming. 
The  teacher  sits  at  his  desk  and  gives  in  subdued  tone  the 
assistance  asked  for  by  a  pupil  who  steps  up  to  him.  Since 
there  is  no  study -hour  during  the  day's  work — that  is, 
within  the  daily  programme — this  silence-hour  becomes  a 
necessity.  Of  course,  it  imposes  additional  work  on  the 
teacher,  but,  since  each  one  is  called  upon  to  spend  only  an 
hour  every  fortnight,  the  burden  is  not  great. 


262  LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY). 

CHAPTER  X. 

leipsic  (kingdom  of  saxony). 
1.  Leipsic.    Manual  Training  School. 

Before  I  describe  this  school  and  state  its  results,  it  seems 
essential  to  emphasize  the  principal  difference  between  this 
(the  German)  manual  training-school  and  those  in  Paris. 

In  Paris,  skill  in  some  trades  seems  end  and  aim.  In  this 
school  in  Leipsic  (and  in  those  of  more  than  two  dozen  good- 
sized  towns  in  Germany)  the  manual  occupations  are  "  part 
and  parcel "  of  a  "  harmonious,  all-sided  education,  which 
aims  alike  at  intellectual  growth,  increase  of  will-power,  and 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  hands  and  tools.  This  difference  is 
the  principal  one,  but,  as  is  readily  seen,  it  is  also  a  difference 
in  principle.  The  French  motive-power  is  utilitarianism; 
that  of  the  Germans  is,  as  Froebel  has  it,  "  to  make  men — 
whole,  complete  men — men  who  can  observe,  learn  by  expe- 
rience, and  act  up  to  their  convictions." 

In  nothing  is  the  difference  so  clearly  seen  as  in  the 
things  which  the  pupils  here  in  the  ancient  Thomas  School 
manufacture.  In  subsequent  pages  of  this  report  this  will 
be  more  clearly  seen.  From  the  illustrations  I  gathered  in 
Paris  (see  p.  325),  it  will  be  seen  that  no  complete  thing  is 
made.  Each  object  furnished  by  the  pupils  is  an  exercise, 
as  it  were.  Not  a  door  is  made,  but  a  corner-joint  of  a 
door  ;  not  a  drawer,  but  the  dovetailing  joint  of  two  boards  ; 
not  a  window,  but  a  window-cross,  and  so  on. 

I  can  in  no  better  way  explain  the  work  in  Paris  than 
by  comparing  the  manual  work  of  the  boys  there  with  the 
4tudes  and  exercises  on  the  piano,  practiced  for  the  purpose 
of  gaining  that  dexterity  of  the  fingers  which  may  be  neces- 
sary ;  but  to  confine  a  pupil  exclusively  to  such  practice 
would  be  making  a  little  rebel  of  him  in  a  short  time.  Be- 
sides, it  is  claimed  by  people  who  ought  to  know  whereof 
they  talk,  that  that  dexterity  can  be  gained  equally  well  by 


APPEAL   TO   LEIPSIC'S   SCHOOL-BOYS.  263 

practicing  musical  "pieces."  Another  simile  drawn  from 
our  professional  art  is  that  the  Parisian  travail  manuel 
schools  teach  the  grammar  of  manual  work,  while  the 
German  schools  teach  the  work  itself,  which  includes  the 
grammar. 

Another  very  essential  difference  between  the  French 
and  German  manual  training  schools  is  found  in  this:  the 
French  boys  do  work  which  ought  to  be  reserved  for  adults 
— the  details  of  a  door-joint  are  foreign  to  a  child's  range  of 
experience ;  while  in  the  German  schools  the  boys  learn  to 
make  things  such  as  they  find  use  for.  This  causes  a  cer- 
tain satisfaction,  while  details  leave  the  working  boys  un- 
satisfied. Nothing  in  the  Gei*man  schools  is  made  that  has 
not  in  itself  a  value  for  the  child.  The  educational  value  of 
the  German  manual  training  school  is  well  characterized  in 
the  following: 

2.  Appeal  to  Leipsic's  School-Boys. 

Listen  to  what  we  have  to  say,  boys.  It  concerns  every  true  boy. 
Every  one  of  you  who  wants  to  become  a  true  man  likes  to  watch  dili- 
gent workmen  and  wishes  to  do  like  them — that  is  to  say,  use  the  ham- 
mer and  hatchet,  the  tweezers  and  gimlet,  the  plane  and  saw,  the  file 
and  rasp,  the  bolt  and  solder,  the  blow-pipe,  the  modeling-tool  and  carv- 
ing-knife, etc.  Every  boy  who  is  a 'real  boy  tries  to  use  these  tools.  He 
will  find  opportunities  to  do  so  in  our  manual  training-school. 

We  don't  want  to  make  artisans  of  you,  for  your  leisure  hours  would 
not  suffice  for  that ;  but  we  want  to  make  you  more  skillful  and  clever 
than  boys  usually  are.  How  many  can  drive  a  nail  without  hitting  their 
fingers  ?  How  many  can  make  kites  that  balance  and  fly  well  ?  How 
many,  when  the  skates  get  shaky  on  the  ice,  can  help  themselves  and 
need  not  run  to  the  locksmith  ?  Yes,  many  of  you  can  not  even  point  a 
pencil  well,  or  put  a  wrapper  around  a  school-book  without  making  it 
look  clumsy. 

Your  parents  mean  to  benefit  you  when  they  present  you  with  a  tool- 
box at  Christmas.  How  many  of  such  boxes  are  shoved  into  the  comer, 
where  the  tools  rust  and  the  box  is  covered  with  dust  ?  You  must  have 
some  one  who  teaches  you  how  to  use  tools.  Or  you  get  a  scroll-saw, 
and,  after  breaking  a  number  of  saw-blades,  you  succeed  in  sawing  out 


264  LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY). 

of  cigar-box  boards  a  few  clumsy  patterns.  Then  you  go  to  a  joiner  to 
have  them  glued  and  adjusted.  He  is  the  one  who  does  the  real  work. 
Yet  you  give  these  things  away  as  your  work.  It  isn't  right,  boys  !  It 
can't  be  right ! 

We  must  talk  plainly,  boys.  Most  of  you  do  not  know  how  to  use 
tools.  That  needs  to  be  learned.  Most  of  you  spend  too  much  time  in 
reading,  and  spoiling  their  precious  eye-sight.  When  you  are  called  to  do 
a  manual  job  for  your  mothers,  you  are  at  a  loss  how  to  go  at  it.  Oh, 
what  would  have  become  of  you  had  you  been  in  Robinson  Crusoe's 
place  ?     You  would  have  perished  miserably.     Come,  boys,  think  of  it ! 

Things  should  be  different.  When  school  is  over  and  home  tasks 
are  done,  a  true  boy  spends  an  hour  happily  on  the  playground  and  in 
summer  takes  a  bath  in  the  river.  In  winter  he  may  learn  to  work  with 
his  hands  at  the  work-bench  and  the  vise.  After  many  hours  of  brain- 
work  he  uses  his  strength  in  planing  and  sawing,  hammering  and  chisel- 
ing. He  learns  to  see  and  admire  lines  of  beauty  in  drawing,  and  work- 
ing out  his  drawings  in  models.  He  furnishes  models  in  clay  and  carves 
wood.  He  makes  physical  experiments,  and  works  neat  Christmas  pres- 
ents for  his  dear  ones  at  home. 

And  when,  outside,  the  winter  storms  rage  and  the  snow-flakes  fall, 
our  pupils  come  together  in  a  warm  room  and  work  like  good  fellows  to 
produce  something,  and  laugh,  chat,  and  sing  in  company,  while  book- 
worms sit  in  comers  like  hermits.  Our  pupils  have  had  such  pleasures 
for  several  years.     Come  and  join  us. 

But,  remember,  we  don't  want  any  "  lazy-bones."  If  any  of  you  like 
to  shirk  work,  and  after  a  few  weeks,  when  the  work  gets  harder,  thinks 
he  has  a  toothache,  or  perchance  some  other  ache,  don't  let  him  come. 
We  don't  want  him.  We  want  diligent  boys.  All  who  like  to  work  are 
welcome.  Ask  your  parents.  They  will  allow  you  to  come  for  an  hour 
or  two  where  they  know  you  are  well  looked  after. 

Life  is  full  of  work,  boys,  now  more  than  ever.  Prepare  for  it.  A 
true  man  learns  to  help  himself,  and  we  will  show  you  how.  So  come, 
and  be  welcomed  by 

The  Masters  of  the  Trainixg-School. 

This  appeal  was  printed  in  1883,  and  hung  up  in  the  cor- 
ridors of  the  several  common  schools,  and  in  consequence 
five  hundred  and  seventy-five  pupils  were  enlisted  in  the 
manual  training  school. 


NORMAL  SCHOOL   FOR  MANUAL  TRAINING.         265 

3.  Normal  School  for  Manual  Training. 

Leipsic  has  become  the  center  of  the  manual  training 
movement  in  Germany.  A  wise  provision  of  the  people 
there  was  to  establish  a  normal  school  for  manual  occupa- 
tions. It  was  argued  that,  so  long  as  teachers  were  wanting 
and  artisans  had  to  be  employed  as  teachers,  the  instruction 
would  go  astray  as  it  did  in  Paris ;  it  woidd  inevitably  end 
in  special  apprentice  school  work.  To  make  manual  train- 
ing an  essential  part  of  public  education,  it  must  be  brought 
into  harmony  with  all  the  other  educational  exertions  of 
the  school ;  itself  must  rest  on  educational  principles. 

How  deeply  the  want  of  a  seminary  for  manual  training 
teachers  had  been  felt  all  over  Germany,  could  be  seen  from 
the  fact  that,  when  this  school  was  opened,  fifty -five  students, 
mostly  teachers,  applied  for  admission  from  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many, Austria,  and  one  even  from  Russia.  They  were  dele- 
gated by  state  governments  and  city  councils,  by  school  com- 
mittees and  societies,  provided  with  the  necessary  means  by 
pubhc  and  private  eflPorts.  All  of  them  had  some  skill  in 
the  use  of  tools,  and  therefore  attended  the  first  course  of  the 
new  institution  very  profitably.  Ever  since  this  first  course 
the  time  of  the  courses  has  been  extended,  so  that  now  every 
department  of  manual  training,  so  far  as  approved  to  come 
within  the  pale  of  public  education,  is  taught,  namely : 

1.  Pasteboard  and  bookbinder's  work. 

2.  Joiner's  and  carpenter's  work. 

3.  Turner's  work  (wood  and  other  materials). 

4.  Carving  in  wood  and  plaster. 

5.  Modeling  in  clay,  and  casting. 

6.  Wire-work  and  tinsmithing. 

7.  Lock-  and  tool -smithing. 

The  old  Thomas  School,  a  building  which  is  perhaps  four 
hundred  years  old,  and  in  which  Sebastian  Bach  used  to  be 
cantor,  has  been  entirely  given  over  by  the  city  authorities 
to  the  Society  for  the  Introduction  of  Manual  Training.  In 
the  afternoons  and  evenings  the  lower  floor  contains  hun- 


266 


LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM   OF  SAXONY). 


dreds  of  little  fellows  hard  at  work,  and  on  the  third  floor  is 
the  normal  school.  Here  are  seen  men  of  forty  or  fifty  as 
pupils,  using  the  file  or  the  hammer  and  saw.  It  looks  odd 
yet  natural.  Every  normal  school  pupil  must  make  a  mas- 
terpiece before  he  can  graduate.  I  saw  a  heautiful  money- 
safe  made  by  a  middle-aged  man,  whose  long  waving  beard 
showed  streaks  of  gray.  He  hoped  to  graduate  upon  the 
strength  of  this  safe. 

I  spent  a  day  in  this  quaint  old  school-house,  and  found  it 
as  instructive  as  it  was  amusing.  There  are  two  sitting- 
rooms  for  the  students,  furnished  handsomely  and  provided 
with  a  piano.  Here  the  students  converse,  read,  and  sing, 
during  the  pauses  between  lessons.  Chorus  singing,  under 
the  leadership  of  a  musician  from  their  ranks,  is  indulged  in, 
and  the  work  is  thus  made  pleasant.  Several  halls  are  filled 
with  the  work  of  the  pupils,  an  exhibition  of  rare  merit. 
Dr.  W.  Goetze,  the  rector  of  this  institution,  seems  to  be  the 
leading  spirit  of  the  entire  movement  in  Leipsic. 

4.  The  Work  done  in  Leipsic. 

And  now  I  will  proceed  to  show  what  kind  of  work  is 
done  in  Leipsic.  Among  the  many  hundreds  of  objects  made 
of  pasteboard  and  paper  I  will  sketch  a  few  typical  ones. 

The  wood-work  (joiner-work)  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  done  in  Vienna.  The  reader  is  requested  to  compare 
pages  401-409.  But  the  children  in 
Leipsic  make  a  number  of  pieces  of 
apparatus  used  in  physics;  many  of 
them  are  very  exact.  I  insert  some 
models  on  page  268. 

In  wire-work  this  school  does  more 
than  any  other  I  saw.  Truly  inge- 
nious devices  are  made  with  soft  and 
hard  wires.  The  first  step  in  this  de- 
partment is  making  geometrical  fig- 
ures. After  that  a  great  number  of  objects  of  use  in  the 
house  are  made,  such  as  button-hooks,  lamp-chimney  clean- 


Fia.  241. 


THE   WORK   DONE   IN   LEIPSIC. 


267 


Fios.  242-247. 


268 


LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY). 


ers,  paper-holders,  chains,  and  raany  others.  The  hand- 
hook  used  by  the  teachers  is  full  of  suggestions.  The  tin 
and  zinc  work  has  a  very  "  useful  look."  Quite  a  number  of 
neat  things  are  made  of  tin,  zinc,  and  copper. 


Fios.  348-258. 


In  wood-carving  the  Leipsic  school  confines  itself  to  a 
peculiar  but  handsome  pattern,  called  "scallop  cut,"  which  is 
repeated  in  ever-changing  forms.  A  few  typical  sketches 
copied  from  ornamented  furniture  may  illustrate  this.  This 
work  is  not  done  as  exercise  only,  but  each  new  form  is  in- 
stantly applied  on  some  useful  article.     (See  page  269.) 


THE   WORK  DONE  IN  LEIPSIC. 


269 


The  work  in  modeling  in  clay  also  is  vastly  different 
from  that  in  Paris  ;  while  there  ornamenting  is  the  chief 


Fig.  259.— Wood-Carvinq. 


aim,  here  in  Leipsic  it  is  forming  objects,  beginning  with 
geometrical  and  ending  with  forms  of  life. 

But  in  one  thing  all  the  manual  training-schools  I  have 


270  LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM   OF  SAXONY). 

seen  follow  the  same  method.  No  article,  no  exercise  is 
done  in  material,  be  that  clay,  plaster,  wood,  metal,  or  paste- 
board, unless  a  drawing  is  first  made  by  the  pupil. 

Characteristic  of  the  object  of  this  Leipsic  school  is  the 
condensed  announcement  of  its  rector,  in  which  he  says : 
"  Instruction  in  our  workshops  aims  at  developing  the  boys' 
practical  common  sense,  training  their  senses,  making  them 
skillful  in  the  handling  of  tools,  giving  their  creative  activity 
opportunities  for  application  and  the  overtaxed  brain  a 
chance  to  recuperate  by  means  of  manual  work,  which  is  in 
itself  an  innocent  recreation  and  pleasure,  while  it  strength- 
ens the  body.  No  aimless  play- work  is  permitted,  nor  tedious 
exercises  with  no  apparent  object.  A  boy  who  begins  an 
article  must  know  what  he  intends  to  produce,  and  then 
bend  all  his  energy  to  secure  that  end.  Boys  who  thus  learn 
to  work  respect  labor  in  any  form,  and  are  not  ashamed  of  it." 

To  sum  up :  I  prefer  this  German  school,  with  all  its  in- 
conveniences, to  the  magnificently  equipped  manual  train- 
ing halls  in  Paris  with  their  tedious  exercises, 

5.  The  Germ  of  the  Manual  Training  Idea. 

In  the  month  of  January,  1888,  died  the  noted  school 
reformer  of  Finland  (in  Russia),  Uno  Cygnaeus,  rector  of 
a  normal  school  at  lyvaskylae,  on  Lake  Paijene,  Finland. 
The  news  of  his  death  was  scarcely  noticed  beyond  the  con- 
fines of  Finland.  Yet  the  name  of  that  man  deserves  to  be 
remembered  in  every  civilized  country.  Cygnaeus  was  the 
father  of  that  practical  instruction  in  manual  training  which 
is  now  taking  its  conquering  course  through  the  civilized 
world,  and  is  being  recognized  as  a  regular  and  legitimate 
branch  of  study  or  occupation  in  the  boys'  schools  of  Fin- 
land, Sweden,  France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  In  view- 
ing the  life  of  this  man  it  may  be  seen  that  America  has 
contributed  its  mite  toward  developing  an  idea  which  will 
prove  a  salvation  to  thousands  and  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  boys,  not  to  mention  the  benefits  it  offers  to  education 
in  general  all  over  the  civilized  world. 


THE  GERM  OF  THE  MANUAL  TRAINING  IDEA.      271 

Cygnaeus  was  born  at  Tavastehus,  on  the  12th  of  Octo- 
ber, 1810.  When  he  had  completed  his  school  and  college 
studies,  he  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry  and  accepted  a 
position  as  preacher  in  the  state-prison  at  Viborg.  But  in 
1839  he  left  his  native  country  to  follow  a  call  to  Russian 
America  (now  Alaska).  Among  the  Russian  settlements  of 
extreme  Northwestern  America  there  were  a  number  of 
Finnish  families  that  needed  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  Cyg- 
naeus was  assigned  to  that  duty.  In  order  to  reach  his  post 
he  took  the  long  way  around  Cape  Horn,  and  landed  at 
Novo-Archangelsk  in  May,  1840. 

He  brought  with  him  embryonic  thoughts  on  education, 
and,  thrown  upon  his  own  resources  for  intellectual  company 
among  the  semi-savages  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  in  Russian 
America,  he  began  to  construe  the  world's  needs  in  his  own 
inimitable  way.  He  was  a  man  of  active  intellect  and  fer- 
tile imagination.  Here  in  this  northern  wilderness  it  was 
that  the  idea  of  Finland's  school  reform  was  conceived  and 
bom.  It  was  a  feeble  germ,  though.  For  here  it  was 
nurtured  in  its  infancy  by  no  more  food  than  the  brain 
of  a  man  who  was  cut  loose  from  the  civilized  world,  like  a 
convict  in  the  mines  of  Siberia. 

Otto  Salomon,  the  rector  of  the  Swedish  Manual  Training 
Seminary  at  Naas,  says  of  him :  "  Cut  loose  from  the  world 
of  culture  and  thought,  surrounded  by  human  beings  who 
were  half  savages,  the  young  preacher,  in  his  lonely  walks 
from  one  settlement  to  another,  and  by  the  lamp  in  his 
hermit's  study,  was  seized  by  an  unconquerable  desire  to 
benefit  his  race ;  to  find  suitable  means  for  lifting  men  to  a 
higher  level  of  existence;  to  discover  ways  and  means  of 
reform  in  intellectual  and  moral  education.  Few  books 
were  at  his  disposal,  but  among  them  were  Pestalozzi's  and 
Froebel's  works.  These  he  studied  in  his  lonely  hours,  and 
soon  the  fructifjring  spirit  of  Froebel  awakened  in  him  the 
germ  of  that  idea  which  afterward  took  that  definite  shape  in 
which  we  know  it." 

The  study  of  Froebel's  works  particularly  strengthened 
19 


272  LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY). 

him  in  his  determination  to  devote  his  life  to  the  cause  of 
education  of  coming  generations.  Five  years  he  spent  in 
studying  his  favorite  authors,  and  in  framing  his  plans. 
Then  he  returned  home  by  way  of  Okhotsk  through  Siberia 
and  Russia.  From  the  year  1846  till  1856,  for  more  than  ten 
years,  he  lived  among  his  countrymen  at  St.  Petersburg, 
acting  as  religious  adviser,  and  made  himself  and  his  educa- 
tional reform  plans  known  to  others  through  the  press. 

When,  in  1856,  Emperor  Nicholas  died,  and  with  Alex- 
ander II  an  era  of  reform  began  not  only  in  Russia  proper 
but  also  in  Finland  (the  people  of  which  are  more  Swedish 
than  Russian),  Cygnaeus  thought  the  time  had  come  for  the 
realization  of  his  plans.  Alexander  II  was  crowned  as 
Grand-duke  of  Finland,  and  came  to  this  province,  where  he 
declared,  in  a  memorable  session  of  the  provincial  senate, 
that  Finland  should  enjoy  the  blessings  of  a  common-school 
system.  Wisely  the  emperor  left  the  execution  of  that  order 
to  the  home  government,  and  the  senate  called  upon  the 
councilors  of  the  three  consistories  (at  the  time  regents  of 
church  and  school  in  Finland)  to  make  propositions  for  a 
system  of  schools  which  would  come  up  to  the  emperor's 
well-emphasized  decision.  These  propositions  were  pub- 
lished, and  subjected  to  public  scrutiny. 

This  gave  Cygnaeus  a  chance  to  forward  his  plans  in 
connection  with  a  dignified  criticism  of  the  councilors' 
propositions.  Among  the  essays  submitted  to  the  Govern- 
ment was  that  of  Cygnaeus,  which  made  the  most  favorable 
impression.  With  that  tolerance  for  the  opinion  of  others 
which  will  always  commend  itself,  Cygnaeus  discussed  the 
propositions  and  suggested  his  own  plans.  In  the  senate  his 
ideas  found  favor  at  once,  and  it  was  thought  that  a  man 
who  could  thus  consistently  lay  open  his  plans  and  so  well 
sustain  them,  was  the  proper  person  to  execute  them. 

He  was  rewarded  with  the  entire  confidence  of  the  au- 
thorities, and  was  charged  with  framing  the  plans  for  a  sys- 
tem of  schools  which  offered  room  for  manual  training. 
But,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  present  the  best  results  of 


DRAWING  IN   LEIPSIC  AND  OTHER  SAXON  CITIES.     273 

study  and  observation,  he  was  sent  to  central  Europe,  to  in- 
spect the  schools  there.  This  he  did,  and,  after  studying  the 
ideas  of  German  educational  reformers  and  observing  their 
practical  results,  returned  home,  embodied  what  he  had 
learned  into  his  own  plans,  and  then  submitted  his  new 
plans. 

They  were  unanimously  adopted,  and  he  was  appointed 
Inspector-General  of  the  People's  Schools  of  Finland,  and 
rector  of  the  normal  school  at  lyvaskylae  (situated  on  the 
woody  shore  of  Lake  Paijene,  in  the  center  of  the  province). 
In  this  position  he  was  able  to  execute  his  favorite  idea  of 
introducing  manual  training  for  boys,  and  other  far-reach- 
ing plans  of  reform,  without  opposition.  The  fact  that  he 
found  little,  if  any  opposition,  may  be  attributed  to  his 
lovable  character  and  charming  temper.  ■  It  is  said  of  him 
that  he  disarmed  opposition  w4th  his  saint-like  smile,  his 
unconquerable  determination,  and  wonderful  strength  of 
argument. 

His  chief  points  of  reform  consisted  in  introducing  Pesta- 
lozzi's  objective  teaching  and  Froebel's  occupations  into  the 
schools,  supplementing  both  by  manual  training  for  more 
advanced  grades.  The  principle  upon  which  his  system  was 
based  was,  that  education  of  the  young  must  aim  not  at  one- 
sided intellectual  training,  but  at  the  harmonious  strength- 
ening and  exercise  of  man's  inborn  powers,  with  constant 
eonsideration  of  practical  aims  in  life.  The  whole  life  of 
this  man  proves  again  what  a  p>ower  a  man  can  be  who  has 
an  idea,  and  the  strength  of  will  to  pursue  and  realize  it. 

6.  Drawing  m  Leipsic  and  other  Saxon  Cities. 

Prof.  F.  Flinzer,  the  famous  illustrator  of  "  Die  deutsche 
Jugend,"  author  of  "Konig  Nobel,"  and  inspector  of  the 
drawing  department  in  Leipsic,  had  the  great  kindness  to 
devote  a  day  to  the  task  of  initiating  me  into  the  method 
pursued  in  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  that  city  and  other 
places  of  Saxony.  He  is  the  leader  of  one  of  the  four  prin- 
cipal systems  employed  in  Germany.    A  simple  statement  of 


274  LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM   OF  SAXONY). 

the  differences  in  the  systems  or  methods  will  not  come 
amiss  in  this  book. 

There  is,  first  of  all,  the  Hamburg  system,  of  which  I  made 
frequent  reference  in  previous  pages.  It  has  been  modified 
somewhat  to  adapt  it  to  existing  circumstances,  and  has  re- 
cently been  officially  introduced  in  all  the  schools  of  Prussia. 
Prof.  Stuhlmann,  rector  of  the  industrial  art-school  in  Ham- 
burg, is  the  author.  It  may  be  said  that  it  is  spread  over 
more  territory  than  any  other  system,  simply  because  the 
largest  and  leading  state  of  Germany — Prussia — has  adopted 
it.  This  system  applies  geometrical  forms  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  presents  the  child  in  due  course  of  years  with  a 
wealth  of  beautiful  ornamental  forms,  a  few  of  which  are 
found  on  previous  pages.  Like  other  good  systems,  it  avoids 
printed  copies,  and  requires  teacher  and  pupils  to  work  out, 
to  develop  forms  from  others.  It  begins  vpith  drawing  in 
net-lines,  and  ends  with  perspective  drawing  of  solids. 

There  is,  however,  a  .serious  error  in  the  Prussian  or  Ham- 
burg system  :  it  permits — nay,  requires — the  use  of  instru- 
ments, ruler,  compasses,  etc.,  and  ties  down  th«  child  to  the 
use  of  measures,  such  as  ruler,  paper-strips,  etc.  It  never 
quite  emancipates  the  pupil  from  artistic  measures.  He 
measures  his  construction-lines  on  every  grade  of  the  course, 
and  he  is,  even  at  a  time  when  his  eye  should  be  sufficiently 
trained  in  measuring  without  aids,  such  as  paper-strips,  re- 
quired to  verify  his  estimates  taken  by  the  eye.  If  this  error 
is  eliminated,  I  think  the  system  is  destined  to  a  great 
future. 

Opposed  to  this  Prussian  or  Hamburg  school  is  Flinzer  s 
system.  It  is  known  in  Germany  as  the  Leipsic  system. 
Flinzer  never  allows  an  instrument,  but  practices  the  eye  to 
measure  accurately.  He  discards  drawing  in  net-lines,  but 
begins  with  free-hand  drawing,  and  continues  it  through  the 
entire  course.  Drawing  from  solids,  geometrical  bodies, 
casts,  busts,  etc.,  begins  in  the  third  grade,  and  compasses 
and  ruler  are  excluded  rigidly  and  mercilessly  from  the  en- 
tire course.     I  believe  it  is  permitted  only  where  mechanical 


DRAWING    IN  LEIPSIC  AND  OTHER  SAXON  CITIES.     £75 

engineering  is  taught  in  the  high-school.  Naturally  Flinzer's 
course  is  much  slower  than  Stuhlmann's. 

The  third  system  in  vogue  at  many  places  in  Germany 
is  the  one  I  mentioned  also  in  one  of  my  previous  reports 
(see  page  233).  It  consists  of  drawing  solids  at  once,  and 
discards  flat-surfaced  copies.  This  system  is  rather  in  a 
primitive  state  of  development,  and  may  perhaps,  in  years 
to  come,  grow  more  methodical.  Where  industrial,  so-called, 
manual  training  schools  are  established,  this  system  of  di-aw- 
ing  finds  many  friends. 

The  fourth  system  is  the  well-known  copying  from  flat- 
surfaced  models,  which  never  develops  self-activity,  but 
keeps  the  pupil  dependent  upon  copies.  I  am  sorry  to  say 
that  this  system  is  still  in  general  use  in  America.  Here  in 
Germany  it  is  fast  disappearing.  Of  all  the  systems  I  saw 
in  operation  here  in  Europe,  that  of  Prof.  Flinzer  recom- 
mends itself  to  me  most  favorably.  I  have  gathei"ed  about 
forty  specimens  from  his  own  pupils  representing  the  ages 
from  nine  till  fourteen  years,  and  shall  endeavor  to  have 
them  reproduced  by  the  photo-lithographic  process. 

This  Leipsic  system  is  in  harmony  with  the  principles  of 
the  modem  science  of  education.  It  seems  to  seek  the  aim 
of  free-hand  drawing  in  the  general  aim  of  the  school,  that 
is,  in  intellectual  growth,  not  merely  in  dexterity  of  the  hand 
and  correct  representation  of  form.  Each  of  its  steps  may 
be,  and  I  believe  is,  founded  upon  a  basis  of  psychological 
reasoning.  It  aims  at  the  development  of  an  *'  intellectual 
eye,"  at  conscious  seeing.  Manual  dexterity  is  considered  of 
secondary  importance  ;  indeed,  it  acknowledges  the  latter 
only  when  it  gives  evidence  of  an  actual  comprehension  of 
the  form  to  be  produced  or  reproduced. 

Perhaps  in  nothing  is  Flinzer's  procedure  so  fruitful  as 
in  strengthening  the  power  of  judgment  and  creative  ac- 
tivity. Never  diiring  the  entire  course  does  Flinzer  touch  a 
pupil's  drawing  to  correct  an  error.  By  skillful  questioning 
and  the  simplest  but  most  effective  tests  he  makes  the  pupils 
see  their  own  errors — and  ha\dng  recognized  the  errors  the 


276  LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY). 

correcting  of  them  follows  easily.  There  is  no  show,  no 
aiming  at  glittering  results,  in  his  manner  of  teaching.  It 
is  a  fact  which  can  be  fully  comprehended  only  by  having 
seen  the  system  in  operation,  or  by  comparing  the  results 
with  those  of  other  systems. 

The  Leipsic  system  is  logical— proceeds  from  the  simplest 
to  the  most  complicated  forms;  that  is,  it  proceeds  geneti- 
cally. By  means  of  analysis  and  synthesis  it  develops  forms ; 
in  short,  it  proceeds  precisely  in  the  world  of  forms  as  the 
good  teacher  does  in  the  world  of  ideas  :  observation,  per- 
cept, concept,  idea,  judgment,  follow  in  proper  succession, 
and  the  power  of  imagination  is  wonderfully  nourished. 

Again,  there  is  no  confusion ;  the  course  is  concentrically 
arranged.  Everything  new  stands  in  organic  connection 
with  previous  cognitions.  And  above  all  stands  the  fact 
that  Flinzer  makes  his  pupils  productive;  not  a  form  is 
taught  which  is  not  used  to  produce  new  ones  in  ever-vary- 
ing applications.  A  boy  who  has  gone  through  this  course 
is  never  at  a  loss  how  to  present  forms,  both  flat-surfaced 
ornaments  and  solid  bodies.  This  productive  application  is 
so  peculiar  a  merit  of  this  system  that  it  deserves  special 
mention.  No  pupil  of  Prof.  Flinzer,  after  leaving  school, 
has  dropped  drawing,  but  continues  the  practice.  It  is  a 
preparation  adapted  alike  for  artisan  and  artist— a  quality 
which  can  not  be  claimed  by  any  other  system. 

I  trace  this  back  to  the  noteworthy  fact  that,  from  the 
very  start,  instruments  are  rejected,  and  the  pupil  is  required 
to  rely  entirely  upon  himself.  No  artificial  measuring  is 
allowed ;  the  eye  alone  must  do  the  measuring. 

7.  Shading  m  Drawing. 

Pupils  are  apt  to  think  that  the  light  falls  in  parallel 
beams  on  all  objects,  and-  that  therefore  the  side  on  which  the 
light  falls  should  be  represented  in  white,  while  others  not 
struck  by  direct  beams  of  light  might  be  shaded.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  course  in  shading  this  may  suffice.  But  it  is  no 
more  true  than  it  is  to  say  "  the  sun  rises  or  sets."    Illumina- 


SHADING   IN  DRAWING. 


277 


tion  by  parallel  beams  does  not  occur  in  nature  anywhere, 
for  all  things  visible  to  the  eye  are  struck  by  beams  of  light 
which  stand  at  different  angles  to  each  other.  The  following 
sketch  of  one  of  Prof.  Flinzer's  lessons  is  highly  instructive : 
Suppose  that  a  6  in  the  following  illustration  be  a  win- 
dow thi-ough  which  strong  light  falls  upon  a  sphere  beyond 
its  equator,  namely,  as  far  as  line  c  d.  The  lowest  beam  of 
light  which  can  strike  the  sphere  perpendicularly  is 
the  one  marked  b  e,  the  highest  that  marked  a  f. 
The  space,  or  angle,  between  these  two  lines  is  filled 
\^  with  beams  each  of  which  forms  a  "pole  of  light." 
^^s^  To  these  are  added  a  great  number  of  parallel 
^^^^^^^  beams  of  which  those  that  strike  the  sphere 
^^^^^^^  may  be  considered  first.  We  will  call 
v„~^Nv,\  \  .V  ^^    parallels    belonging   to    each 

other  a  system.       Now,   it 


"'^ 


illumine 
the  space 
between 
e  and  /. 
Each  of 
these  sys- 
tems has 
its  equa- 
tor, that  is,  its  circumference;  but  most  of  these  circumfer- 
ences are  destroyed  or  obliterated  by  the  beams  of  other  sys- 
tems, since  they  too  illumine  a  space.  The  boundary -line  of 
shadow  which  in  case  of  parallel  illumination  would  be 
congruent  with  the  equator  of  the  sphere  is  now  moved 
beyond  the  equator,  or  as  far  as  line  c  d,  that  is,  to  the  tan- 
gents a  d  and  b  c.  The  impression  this  makes  on  the  eye  is 
that  the  equator  has  receded. 


278 


LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM   OF  SAXONY). 


Hence  it  is  obvious  that  the  greatest  amount  of  light  is 
found  on  line  e  /,  and  that  on  the  zone  formed  by  lines  e  f 
and  c  d  the  light  becomes  less  clearly  defined  until  line  c  d 
is  reached,  where  dense  shadow  will  prevail  if  reflected  light 
does  not  strike  even  the  lower  part  of  the  sphere  and  make  it 
visible  to  us.  The  zone  between  e  /  and  c  d  must  therefore 
be  shaded;  beginning  at  e/,  the  shadow  must  be  represented 
as  increasing  till  the  darkest  portion  is  reached. 


The  foregoing  cut  is  a  reproduction  of  a  shaded  sphere,  a 
drawing  of  which  I  saw  done  by  pupils  of  the  schools  in 
Leipsic. 


SHADING  IN  DRAWING. 


2Y9 


During  the  lessons  I  heard  Prof.  Flmzer  give,  I  noticed 
two  ingenioiis  devices  that  appealed  strongly  to  the  senses. 
The  first  was  a  white  board  on  hinges,  which  could  be  placed 
in  front  of  a  window  to  catch  the  direct  beams  of  light. 
Its  dazzling  whiteness  was  well  observed ;  then  the  teacher 
turned  it  slightly,  say  at  an  angle  of  twenty  degrees.  The 
difference  in  the  tone  of  the  color  was  at  once  noticed. 


More  and  more  the  board  was  turned 
away  from  the  direct  beams  of  light;  and 
when,  finally,  it  was  turned  at  an  angle  of  ninety 
degrees,  the  decrease  of  light  on  the  board  was  suf- 
ficient to  convince  the  boys  of  the  necessity  of  shading  it, 
in  case  they  had  to  represent  the  board  in  a  drawing.  This 
gradual  change  showed  them  what  tone  to  apply  in  shading. 
The  other  device  consisted  of  a  square  blackboard  showing 
a  large  circle  in  white  oil-color.  This  board  hung  on  hinges 
also.  When  it  was  turned  to  the  left,  the  pupils  saw  the 
circle  shortened  and  changed  into  an  ellipse,  as  the  forego- 
ing cuts  show. 


280  LEIPSIC  (KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY). 

8.  A  Drawing-Lesson  full  of  Fun. 

Drawing-lessons  are  generally  rather  prosy  affairs.  They 
are  not  apt  to  employ  the  brain ;  weighty  arguments,  hard 
thinking,  quick  responses,  flashes  of  wit,  and  a  pleasant  flow 
of  humor,  are  usually  not  characteristics  of  the  drawing-les- 
sons as  I  know  them  to  be  in  many  schools.  In  Leipsic  a 
bit  of  genuine  fun  is  mixed  with  the  unavoidable  drudgery 
of  the  drawing-lesson,  which  bit  of  fun,  after  all,  has  a  solid 
foundation  of  earnest  intention  on  the  part  of  the  instigator, 
the  teacher.  The  latter — Prof.  Flinzer — told  me  that  a  pupil 
might  test  his  sketches  of  live  forms  by  blackening  them  to 
make  them  appear  as  silhouettes. 

"  Draw  the  outlines  of  the  human  body,"  said  he ;  "  they 
may  seem  to  you  correct ;  then  fill  out  the  outlines,  and  you 
will  instantly  detect  where  the  lines  are  faulty.  Or,  you 
may  instinctively  feel  yourself  that  the  outlines  are  faulty 
somewhere,  but  you  may  be  unable  to  detect  where  the 
errors  are.  All  you  have  to  do  is  to  make  a  silhouette  of 
the  form  you  sketched  in  lines.  The  errors  made  will  cry 
out  their  grievances,  and  you  will  hasten  to  redress  them. 
This  has  led  me  to  give  my  pupils  from  time  to  time  a  lesson 
in  silhouette-drawing. 

"  No  special  methodical  steps  are  planned  for  this  kind  of 
work.  I  merely  use  it  as  a  test-lesson,  but 
the  boys  enjoy  it  as  much  as  going  to  a 
circus.  Thus  I  proceed:  A  boy  is  called 
to  make  five  dots  on  the  board,  and  to 
designate  which  of  the  five  is  to  be  the 
head  of  the  figure.  Then  a  pupil  is  called 
to  the  board  to  draw  a  human  form  within 
these  five  dots,  two  of  which  are  to  desig- 
nate the  place  of  the  hands,  two  the  places 
Fig.  2W.  of  the  feet,  and  one  that  of  the  head.     He 

is  not  permitted  to  choose  the  latter  for 
himself.  If  a  pupil  of  much  imaginative  force  is  called, 
very  interesting-looking  figures  are  the  results.     The  five 


A   DRA.WING-LESSON  FULL  OF  FUN.  281 

points  in  the  frame  in  the  margin,  for  instance,  would  in- 
stantly suggest  the  picture  of  the  crucified.  This  being 
class-work,  all  the  pupils  learn  to  give  shape  to  the  forms 
they  imagine.  Even  poor  draughtsmen  do  commendable 
work, 

"  Sometimes  we  take  five  crumbs  of  bread,  or  five  grains 
of  sand,  and  let  them  fall  on  the  drawing-paper.  Where 
they  chance  to  come  to  rest,  faint  dots  are  made,  the  teacher 
having  previously  stated  that  the  upper  left,  or  the  lower 
right,  or  some  other  corner,  designates  the  position  of  the 
head.  Of  course,  chance  determines  the  position  of  these 
dots.  It  exercises  the  ingenuity  and  imaginative  power  to 
determine  what  kind  of  figures  should  fill  the  frame. 

"  The  fun  which  grows  out  of  this  kind  of  work  is  exhil- 
arating, especially  when  the  oi-der  is  given  to  make  the  head 


Figs.  265-288. 

in  the  lower  left  comer.  This  diflBcult  problem  was  solved 
nicely  by  representing  an.  acrobat  lying  on  his  back  and 
playing  ball  with  his  feet." 

I  offer  to  the  reader  some  of  the  work  done  by  the  pupils 
of  Prof.  Flinzer.  These  sketches  will  speak  for  themselves. 
They  are  not  of  equal  perfection  ;  nor  is  any  of  them  per- 
fect, but  as  the  work  of  boys  of  the  age  of  twelve  to  fourteen 
years  the  figures  are  meritorious.  Perhai)s  the  best  recom- 
mendation of  this  kind  of  lessons  is  the  consideration  that  it 
stimulates  self-activity  to  a  greater  degree  than  copying 


282 


LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM  OF   SAXOXY). 


drawings  or  models.  The  practice  is  at  least  worthy  of  an 
honest  trial  now  and  then,  and  may  be  used  as  a  stimulus 
which  has  the  enviable  quality  of  genuineness  and  absolute 


Figs.  269,  270. 


want  of  artificiality.  My  candid  and  patient  reader  is  kindly 
requested  not  to  call  this  "a  new  method."  It  is  neither  a 
new  nor  an  old  method,  nor  is  it  a  method  at  all.  It  is 
nothing  but  a  very  skillful  device  for  stimulating  the  pupil's 
creative  activity,  but,  as  such,  very  valuable. 

9.  The  Best-equipped  School. 

The  Sixth  Biirger  School  in  Leipsic  is,  as  far  as  my 
knowledge  of  schools  goes,  the  best  equipped  in  the  world. 


THE  BEST-EQUIPPED  SCHOOL. 


283 


I  do  not  mean  the  "best  manned,  but  best  equipped  with 
means  of  instruction.  Wherever  in  Leipsic  I  inquired  what 
school  would  yield  the  largest  crop  of  valuable  observations, 
I  was  told  to  go  to  the  Sixth  Biirger  School.  I  will  say 
nothing  of  its  organization.  It  differs  materially  from  that 
of  our  common  schools,  but  all  the  differences  I  noticed  are 
sequences  of  peculiar  German  social  distinctions  which  we 
do  not  care  to  adopt.  This  school  shows  a  wealth  of  equip- 
ment with  means  of  instruction  that  might  make  Pestalozzi 
turn  green  with  envy  in  his  grave. 

While  in  Paris  I  was  much  delighted  when  I  saw  the 
magnificent  and  generous  equipment  of  the  primary  schools 
there,  but  this  school  far  surpasses  them  all.  No  apparatus 
ever  invented  to  illustrate  instruction  in  physics  is  wanting 
here.     Many  of  these  devices  and  machines  are  made  by  the 


Fig.  271. 


rector,  Mr.  Schmidt.  Natural  history  is  here  represented  by 
innumerable  stuffed  birds  and  animals,  mineral  specimens, 
prepared  sea-animals  and  fishes,  and,  finally  mounted  dried 
plants  in  portfolios.  This  natural  history  cabinet  vies  with 
that  of  the  pedagogical  museum  in  Paris. 

Astronomy,  which  appears  to  be  the  hobby  of  this  gentle- 
man, is  well  represented  by  devices  which  are  nearly  all 
patented.  Every  total  or  partial  eclipse  that  occurs  during 
the  year  is  carefully  sketched  and  represented  in  movable 
pasteboard  devices,  showing  the  courses  the  shadow  takes 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth.  (See  Fig.  271,  a  sketch  of  the 
last  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  was  observed  by  the 


284 


LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM   OF  SAXOXY). 


Fig.  272. 


pupils  after  a  lesson  which  prepared  them  suitably  for  the 
phenomenon. ) 

In  the  corridor  hangs  a  device  showing  the  relative  size 
of  the  sun,  earth,  and  moon.     (See  Fig.  272.)    The  mean 

distance  of  the  moon  from 
the  earth,  as  represented  in 
the  simple  device,  is  made 
the  one-thousandth  part  of 
the  length  of  the  corridor. 
Large  planetariums  and  tel- 
lurions  of  his  own  make  were 
exhibited  in  great  number 
by  Prof.  Schmidt. 

Preparations  for  illustrat- 
ing instruction  in  physiology 
filled  an  entire  room.  There 
were  such  of  plaster,  of  pa- 
pier-macM,  of  pasteboard, 
even  of  marble.  Geographi- 
cal maps,  relief  and  plane-surface  maps,  were  here  collected 
and  so  nicely  arranged  that  a  mere  glance  sufficed  to  find 
the  desired  one.  Perfect  order  reigned  supreme,  for  the 
professor  allows  no  one  to  handle  his  treasures  in  the  cabi- 
net. All  requisitions  are 
filled  by  himself. 

In  regard  to  inventing 
devices  for  illustrative 
teaching  he  is  a  genius. 
I  select  one  of  the  numer- 
ous articles  to  prove  the 
originality  of  the  man.  It 
is  a  device  illustrating 
"  borrowing  "  in  subtrac- 
tion. The  thing  is  made 
of  paste-board,  has  three 

compartments,  each  covered   with  glass,  under  which  are 
seen  ten  round  ajiertures.     If  a  strap  at  the  side  is  pulled, 


NICKEL  BRONZE 

QROSCHEN.       PENNIES. 


Fig.  273. 


THE  BEST-EQUIPPED  SCHOOL.  285 

there  appear  ten  silver  marks  in  the  holes  of  the  first  com- 
partment ;  if  another  is  pulled,  nine  of  them  disappear, 
one  is  left ;  this  one  is  borrowed  and  changed  to  nickel 
groschen,  which  is  done  by  pulling  a  second  strap.  The 
device  itself  is  perhaps  of  less  methodical  value,  as  the  in- 
ventor may  think  ;  still,  with  especially  dull  pupils,  it  may 
be  of  service. 

Another  thing  worthy  of  imitation  is  a  pictorial  pres- 
entation of  the  changes  that  have  been  going  on  in  the 
city.  The  history  of  the  city  is  illustrated  by  three  water- 
color  charts  of  very  large  size.  The  first  represents  Leipsic 
at  the  time  of  Luther.  The  "  Grimma  Gate,"  the  "  Pleissen- 
burg,"  and  the  old  fortifications,  are  there  in  exact  copy  of 
old  pictures  preserved  in  the  city  museums  and  archives. 
The  second  pictxire  represents  the  same  places  at  the  time  of 
Napoleon  I,  Avith  all  the  changes  that  had  been  made  since 
the  time  of  Luther.  It  is  the  scene  of  that  memorable  day, 
the  18th  day  of  October,  1813,  when  the  Prussian  Land- 
wehr  stormed  the  Grimma  Gate.  The  third,  and  naturally 
most  handsome  of  the  three  pictures,  represents  the  city  as 
it  is  now.  The  view  is  taken  from  the  same  standpoint 
from  which  the  others  are  taken.  What  notable  changes 
this  picture  shows !  It  is  a  speaking  proof  of  the  marvel- 
ous industry  of  our  century,  such  as  no  description  and  no 
column  of  numbers  could  give.  These  large  pictures  are 
mounted  on  muslin,  provided  with  light  frames,  and  used 
frequently  in  teaching  home  history  and  geography.  Other 
pictures,  scenes  from  the  history  of  civilization  and  cult- 
ure, were  there,  but  the  above  mentioned  interested  me 
most. 

A  geological  map  of  the  earth's  crust  on  which  Leipsic  is 
situated  deserves  to  be  described.  Think  of  a  glass-covered 
case,  in  which  the  diflPerent  strata  of  the  earth,  so  far  as 
known,  are  made  of  real  minerals.  From  the  granite  up- 
ward to  alluvial  and  diluvial  layers,  each  layer  is  repre- 
sented in  approximate  thickness.  There  were  "  grauwacke," 
brown  coal,  ocean  gravel,  erratic  blocks,  loam,  etc.  I  thought 


286 


LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM   OF  SAXONY). 


I  miglit  suggest  to  our  high-school  teachers  to  prepare  such  a 
map  in  natura,  for  their  own  city,  so  far  as  the  crust  is 
known  to  them.  I  would  illustrate  the  condition  of  the 
crust  on  which  their  pupils  live,  and  the  treasures  under 
foot,  better  than  a  description.  Or,  still  better,  they  may 
suggest  to  their  pupils  to  make  one. 

In  each  class-room  of  this  superb  school  a  wind-rose  is 
painted  on  the  ceiling  such  as  in  Fig.  274.     Care  is  taken 

to  have  the  cardinal 
points  exactly  right 
by  the  compass,  thus 
indicating  the  position 
of  the  school-house. 
It  will  hardly  do, 
though,  to  leave  the 
execution  to  the  ten- 
der mercies  of  some 
ignorant  painter,  lest 
he  may  consider  his 
convenience.  This  re- 
minds me  of  a  good 
joke: 

A  man  in  a  village 
of  Holland  was  seen 
one  day  painting  a 
heavy  black  line  on  the  gable-end  of  his  house  and  attach- 
ing to  it  a  date,  say  November  18,  1882.  Asked  what  he 
was  about,  he  said:  "  I  am  moving  my  high- water  mark  up 
to  where  the  boys  can't  scratch  it  out  again.  I  am  sick  of 
their  pranks." 

The  most  imposing  thing  to  me  in  this  Sixth  Biirger 
School  was  the  sight  revealed  in  the  laboratory.  Think  of  a 
fully  equipped  laboratory  in  an  elementary  school — not  a 
high-school,  a  fact  which  I  wish  to  emphasize.  Here  were 
amphitheatrically  arranged  seats,  a  well-stocked  counter,  and 
several  large  glass  cases  full  of  chemicals.  What  a  wealth 
was  collected  there  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  tliat  the 


Fig.  274. 


NOTES  FROM   THE  SCHOOLS  OF  LEIPSIC.  287 

costly  platinum  wire  and  sundry  expensive  chemicals  were 
there  used  extensively  without  regard  to  cost. 

The  lesson  in  chemistry  I  heard  here  proved  that  the 
professor,  Rector  Schmidt,  was  not  only  a  man  who  could 
invent  mechanical  contrivances  for  illustrative  teaching, 
but  was  also  a  master  in  teaching.  One  is  apt  to  think  (at 
least  I  have  heard  the  charge  made)  that  much  illusti-ative 
or  objective  teaching  prevents  self-activity  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils.  This  may  be  true,  if  the  teacher  thinks  that  by  ex- 
plaining a  fact  in  appealing  to  the  senses  he  has  done  all 
that  is  necessary.  But  to  see  this  man  use  the  direct  appeal 
to  the  senses  merely  as  a  starting-point,  and  then  drive  the 
boys  by  hard  questioning  into  corners  irom  which  only  their 
own  exei-tion  in  thinking  could  rescue  them,  was  a  memora- 
ble sight.  He  was  a  Pestalozzian  in  principles  and  practice, 
and  possessed  all  the  qualities  that  were  wantmg  in  Pesta- 
lozzi.  Had  that  reformer  had  Schmidt's  talent  not  only  for 
awakening  thought  but  for  exercising  it,  had  he  possessed 
his  excellent  executive  power,  Pestalozzi  would  not  have- 
been  the  great  failure  in  teaching  and  managing  that  he 
was.  I  say  this  with  due  reverence  for  his  undying  phi- 
losophy. 

All  the  teachers  I  saw  at  work  in  this  school  (see  article 
"  Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Leipsic  " )  were  true  assistants  of 
the  principal.  I  saw  lessons  in  the  primary  and  middle 
grades,  and  was  soon  convinced  of  the  fact  that  the  citizens 
of  Leipsic  have  just  cause  to  be  proud  of  this  school.  It  is  a 
grand  temple  of  popular  education,  this  Sixth  Biirger  School 
in  Leipsic  !  When  T  left  it  I  could  not  avoid  comparing  it 
with  others  I  had  seen  in  two  worlds,  and  in  all  my  recollec- 
tions I  found  nothing  equal  to  it. 

10.  Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Leipsic. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  best  methodicians  are 

not  found  in  the  higher  schools  of  Germany.     The  teachers 

there  are  college  and  university  graduates,  who  have  a  great 

deal  of  knowledge  but  little  skill  in  applying  it.     If  one 

20 


288  LEIPSIC   (KINGDOM   OF   SAXONY). 

wishes  to  see  good  teaching  one  must  visit  so-called  people's 
schools.  But  there  are  exceptions  of  rare  merit.  Some  of 
these  may  be  seen  in  Halle.  Another  I  found  in  Leipsic. 
His  name  is  Dr.  Bottcher,  and  he  is  every  inch  a  genius  in 
the  school-room  and  outside  of  it. 

The  subject  of  his  lesson  was  measuring  circular  planes. 
The  class  was  Lower  Prima  (the  thirteenth  school  year). 
What  a  rapidity  in  questioning  and  answering ;  what  a  fer- 
tility in  application ;  what  a  versatility  in  referring  to  other 
fields  of  knowledge  not  intimately  related  to  the  subject  of 
the  day,  but  well  adapted  to  furnish  means  for  comparison 
and  contrast;  and  what  a  breathless  attention  on  the  part  of 
these  young  men  who  in  other  lessons  perhaps  made  sport 
of  their  teachers !  Even  literature  was  drawn  in  and  had  to 
serve  to  enliven  the  lesson. 

When  a  boy  mistook  the  square  of  a  radius  with  the 
double  of  the  radius  and  arrived  at  entirely  wrong  conclu- 
sions, the  professor  led  the  pupil  ad  absurdum  and  then 
sagely  remarked,  "  It  is  the  curse  of  an  evil  deed  that  contin- 
uously it  must  beget  evil"  (Schiller).  The  pupil  saw  the 
fun  in  his  case  and  started  over  again.  When  the  bell  an- 
nounced the  close  of  the  lesson,  I  saw  several  of  the  pupils 
consult  their  watches,  as  though  they  could  not  believe  that 
an  hour  had  passed.  I  do  not  wonder  that  all  candidates  for 
positions  in  the  high-schools  of  Leipsic  are  sent  to  Dr.  Bott- 
cher to  listen  to  his  instructions. 

In  the  school  described  in  a  previous  chapter,  called  the 
"best-equipped  school,"  I  heard  two  lessons  in  the  primary 
grades  which  gave  unimpeachable  evidence  of  the  fact  that 
objective  teaching,  and  much  of  it  at  that,  does  not  prevent 
the  important  function  of  the  teacher,  "  exercise."  For  in  a 
third  grade  I  found  the  little  boys  multiplying  orally  with 
ease  and  rapidity  such  examples  as  7  x  19,  18  x  25,  17  x  16. 
The  first  example  was  solved  thus :  Twenty  times  seven  less 
seven.  The  second  was  solved  first  by  saying,  "  Twenty  times 
eighteen,  plus  five  times  ten,  plus  five  times  eight."  Then  it 
was  solved  by  adding  two  naughts  to  eighteen  and  dividing 


EXAMINATIONS  IN  DRESDEN.  289 

this  number  by  four.  Examples  in  adding  and  subtracting, 
such  as  1625  +  1335  and  1987— 1598,  were  solved  with  equal 
celerity.  Fractions  were  also  handled  easily,  such  as  y-  how 
many  whole  ones  ?  7^  weeks  how  many  days  ?  4f  +  5|=  ?  etc. 
An  object-lesson  in  the  lowest  primary  grade  that  I  heard 
in  the  same  school  consisted  of  a  review  of  what  the  children 
had  observed  in  the  woods  during  an  excursion.  Although 
the  review  gave  evidence  of  a  remarkably  well-developed 
sense  of  observation,  it  recommended  itself  to  me  more  by 
the  wonderful  skill  in  linguistic  expression  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils.  I  note  this  fact  as  a  proof  of  my  former  state- 
ment, that  objective  instruction  as  a  means  is  not  faulty;  it 
only  becomes  so  when  it  is  considered  an  aim  in  itself. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

dresden  ix  saxony  and  munich  in  bavaria. 

1,  Examinations  in  Dresden. 

On  my  trip  through  Thuringia,  Saxony,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland,  I  arrived  in  Dresden  at  an  unfavorable  time. 
It  was  during  examination  week.  Teachers  who  can  not 
imagine  an  annual  examination  except  by  picturing  before 
their  inner  eye  a  class  of  pupils  sitting  bent  over  their  fools- 
cap paper  answering  a  set  of  ten  questions,  may  follow  me 
into  a  school  in  Dresden  to  see  that  a  totally  different  sight 
presented  itself  to  me. 

The  entire  building  was  in  holiday  attire.  On  the  lower 
floors  several  class-rooms  were  opened  for  visitors.  There 
were  collections  of  written  work,  not  done  for  the  occasion, 
but  each  pupil's  daily  work  from  Easter,  1887,  till  Easter, 
1888 — every  copy-book,  every  composition -book,  every 
book  of  problems,  every  language-book,  every  note-book, 
every  spelling  blank  book  used  during  the  year,  neatly  la- 
beled with  name,  class,  age,  and  address  of  the  pupil.    It 


290     DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 


was  a  bewildering  sight.  All  these  rooms  were  visited  for 
five  hours  a  day  all  through  the  week  by  parents  and  friends 
of  the  pupils,  who  inspected  the  work  closely. 

I  turned  away  ashamed  after  looking  over  several  stacks, 
thinking  of  the  slovenly  appearance  of  the  books  in  my  own 
schools  and  comparing  them  with  this  exquisite  beauty  of 
penmanship  and  this  immaculate  cleanliness.  Other  rooms 
were  filled  with  drawings  in  portfolios  and  mounted  draw- 
ings. The  desks  had  been  removed,  and  the  walls  were  cov- 
ered with  drawings.  There  had  been  no  "  natural  selection," 
no  ''  survival  of  the  fittest,"  but  every  scrap,  every  drawing 
furnished  during  the  year  in  that  entire  school  (the  Seventh 
Burger  School,  on  Ammon  Street)  was  there,  good,  bad,  and 
indifferent. 

After  having  feasted  my  eyes  with  the  beautiful  colored 
ornamental  drawings  furnished  by  the  girls,  studied  the  re- 
sults of  manual  work  of  the  boys  in  form  of  pasteboard  and 
wood- work,  after  having  inspected  the  industrial  work  of  the 
girls  (knitting,  crocheting,  embroidering,  patching,  darning, 
sowing,  etc.),  I  was  conducted  up-stairs  to  the  session-room 

of  the  school.    This 
7    Q     ^n  -^    room      was      very 

handsomely  deco- 
rated, and  arranged 
as  indicated  in  Fig. 
275.  Section  A  was 
a  raised  platform 
for  the  magistrate, 
the  councilor  of  edu- 
cation, the  inspectors,  the  rector  of  the  school,  the  committee 
on  public  examination,  and  other  persons  of  importance, 
who  sat  at  a  large  official  looking  table  and  made  notes. 
Section  B  was  partitioned  off  for  the  class  under  examina- 
tion. The  pupils  faced  the  teacher,  and  in  a  long  row  at 
the  banister  sat  the  faculty  of  the  school.  Section  C  was 
reserved  for  the  public,  who  attended  the  examination  very 
numerously. 


B 


c 


Fig.  275. 


EXAMINATIONS  IN   DRESDEN.  291 

A  commission  determines  a  few  days  previously  in  what 
three  branches  the  class  is  to  be  examined  publicly.  This 
examination  is  oral.  The  class  under  trial  was  a  class  of 
girls  of  eleven  to  twelve  years  of  age.  The  branches  in 
which  they  were  examined  were  biblical  history,  physics, 
and  languages.  Fifty  minutes  were  given  to  each  branch, 
and  each  child  was  called  upon,  and  rarely  failed  to  respond. 
It  was  not  possible  to  determine  how  much  of  this  "  per- 
formance "  was  show  and  how  much  honest  work ;  but,  tak- 
ing into  consideration  that  the  teacher  went  over  very  much 
ground,  I  concluded  that  there  was  very  little,  if  any,  pre- 
pared show. 

What  I  heard  was  apparently  a  review  lesson  pure  and 
simple.  The  subjects  had  been  determined  upon  and  an- 
nounced two  days  previous,  so  that  an  elaborate  deception 
was  out  of  the  question.  If  we  further  consider  that  this 
public  examination  does  not  decide  the  promotion  of  pupils, 
but  is  held  chiefly  to  show  the  effectiveness  of  the  school 
and  to  establish  a  closer  connection  between  home  and 
school,  we  may  find  many  redeeming  features  in  this  kind 
of  examining. 

In  several  other  cities,  chiefly  in  southern  Germany,  I 
noticed  another  kind  of  annual  examination  which  com- 
mended itself  to  me.  The  school,  teachers,  and  pupils,  were 
all  in  holiday  attire.  Each  class  sat  in  its  own  accustomed 
room.  The  entire  daily  programme  was  carried  out  as  it  is 
done  during  the  year,  and  the  visitors,  parents,  and  friends 
of  the  pupils,  the  city  and  school  authorities,  representatives 
of  the  learned  professions,  teachers  from  other  schools,  and 
other  people  interested  in  public  education,  came  to  the 
class-rooms  and  listened  to  the  reviews  going  on.  This  was 
called  review  or  visiting  week. 

The  lessons  were  so  arranged  (where  it  could  be  done 
without  much  disturbance)  as  to  give  each  teacher  of  that 
particular  school  a  chance  to  hear  his  colleagues  also.  This 
"  visiting  week,"  as  it  was  called  even  in  hotels,  drew  a  great 
number  of  visitors  to  the  school,  people  who  would  perhaps 


292    DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

never  have  come  if  it  had  not  been  for  this  occasion.  The 
card  which  usually  hangs  on  the  outside  of  each  class-room 
door  and  which  reads,  "  Persons  not  connected  with  this 
school  must  not  enter  this  room  without  permission  of  the 
authorities" — this  card  is  removed  and  everybody  is  wel- 
come, provided  he  causes  no  disturbance. 

It  happened  in  my  presence  that  a  lady,  chagrined  at  the 
apparent  ignorance  of  her  "  dear  little  sonnie,"  broke  the 
rule  and  asked  the  teacher  to  give  him  a  better  chance  to 
show  off.  The  teacher,  a  good-natured,  charitably  inclined 
man,  instead  of  ordering  her  off  the  premises,  complied  with 
her  angry  request,  and  pelted  the  sleepy  youngster  with 
questions,  every  one  of  which  seemed  to  be  very  fair  and 
appropriate ;  but  the  youngster  stared  at  him  and  failed  to 
respond.  So  the  teacher  lowered  the  standard  of  his  ques- 
tions, asking  easier  ones,  and  still  the  boy  failed.  At  last 
the  woman  broke  the  painful  silence,  crying,  "  Wait  till  I 
get  you  home.  Bob  ! " 

This  occurrence,  though  exceptional  as  it  certainly  was, 
and  several  circumstances  attending  the  examinations  in 
Dresden,  made  me  doubt  the  advisability  of  such  public  ex- 
aminations ;  and  if  I  consider  that  we  have  reason  to  object 
strongly  to  the  customary  American  written  examinations 
also,  I  admit  that  the  proper  and  best  form  of  examination 
has  not  yet  been  found,  that  despite  all  suggestions  and  dis- 
cussion the  question  as  to  the  best  mode  of  conducting  ex- 
aminations in  school  is  still  an  open  one.  The  problem 
should  be  solved  solely  with  regard  to  the  educational  influ- 
ence of  examinations. 

2.  Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Dresden. 

In  Dresden  it  was  that  I  witnessed  public  examinations. 
I  had  no  opportunities  for  seeing  or  heai'ing  lessons.  Being 
well  acquainted  with  Prof.  Kleinert,  the  editor  of  the  fore- 
most Grerman  educational  journal,  I  procured  from  him 
printed  reports  and  courses  of  study  which  are  very  interest- 
ing reading-matter.    They  go  here  less  deeply  into  statistical 


NOTES  FROM   THE  SCHOOLS  OF  DRESDEN.  293 

details  than  we  are  accustomed  in  America,  but  what  they 
publish  is  of  more  lasting  value.  I  cull  a  few  interesting 
facts  from  the  annual  report  of  1888,  and  present  them  in 
English  garb.  The  numbers  given  may  not  be  very  impos- 
ing, but  the  facts  are.  I  think  them  well  worth  presenting 
to  American  readers. 

Vacation  colonies  for  sickly  school-children  were  estab- 
lished in  the  country,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty-three  pupils 
were  benefited  thereby.  With  renewed  strength  and  vigor 
these  children  returned  after  a  sojourn  of  six  weeks.  On 
the  outskirts  of  the  city  so-called  city -vacation  colonies  were 
established  last  summer,  which  benefited  four  hundred  and 
thirty  pupils,  who  went  out  in  the  morning  in  six  troops 
with  their  teachers,  and  returned  home  in  the  evening.  For 
many  weeks,  they  were  fed  well  and  spent  their  time  in 
playing  and  making  excui'sions  into  the  woods  and  fields  on 
foot.  The  results  of  this  enterprise  also  were  very  gratifying. 
Children  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  could  hai*dly 
walk  two  miles  without  great  fatigue,  could  at  the  close  of 
the  season  walk  five  and  six  miles  on  a  stretch. 

Play-Grounds. — The  "Society  for  the  Common  Weal" 
secured  the  right  to  use  some  conveniently  situated  groves  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city  for  play-grounds.  Many 
children  made  use  of  them;  four  hundred  and  fifty-eight 
boys  in  twelve  groups  and  four  hundred  girls  in  forty-eight 
groups  played  here  daily,  under  the  inspection  of  the  teachers 
of  gj'mnastics,  male  and  female.  It  is  the  intention  to  secure 
for  each  school-house  a  public  shady  play-ground  outside  of 
the  city.  This  prevents  intercourse  with  morally  bad  ele- 
ments and  contamination  of  vice  in  back  alleys.  The  teach- 
ers are  paid  an  extra  salary  for  the  time  they  devote  to  these 
play-grounds. 

Manual  Training.  —  The  manual  training  school  sup- 
ported by  the  same  society  was  attended  by  two  hundred 
and  forty-six  pupils  in  fifteen  classes.  More  is  said  of  a  sinu- 
lar  school  elsewhere.     (See  pages  262-270.) 

Free  Dinners. — The  "Society  for  the  Suppression  and 


294     DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

Prevention  of  Beggary  "  contributed  twenty-five  hundred 
marlcs  toward  furnishing  warm  dinners  to  needy  school- 
children. The  school  authorities  were  enabled,  with  this  and 
other  sums  of  money,  to  furnish  58,424  plates  of  soup  and 
other  warm  dishes.  More  than  one  thousand  children  en- 
joyed the  luxury  of  a  warm  dinner  who  otherwise  would 
have  gone  without  any  dinner,  or,  at  best,  with  a  cold  lunch. 

Boy- Asylums. — Tlie  "Society  for  the  Establishment  of 
Boy -Asylums"  maintain  four  such  institutions  (see  page 
312)  for  boys,  and  one  for  girls.  The  city  school  authorities 
gave  the  desirable  rooms,  and  suitable  teachers  were  engaged 
who  acted  as  leaders  and  supervisors.  The  children  are  here 
,  fed  and  kept  after  school  hours,  if  they  have  no  home  to  go 
to,  both  parents  being  out  working,  or  the  mother  being 
worried  by  numerous  little  ones.  Manual  training  is  one  of 
the  chief  occupations  on  winter  evenings. 

Baths  mid  Gardens.  —The  city  government  in  summer 
ofi'ered  free  bathing  to  children  of  needy  parents.  Other  chil- 
dren paid  a  nominal  price  for  admission.  The  bathing-places 
are  in  the  Elbe  River,  and  under  constant  supervision  of 
swimming-masters.  Ice-ponds  for  skating  were  kept  clean  at 
the  expense  of  the  city,  and  reserved  for  the  use  of  school- 
children. The  zoological  garden  is  always  open  to  school- 
children, one's  card  for  free  admission  being  confiscated  in 
the  event  of  misconduct.  The  botanical  garden  furnished 
the  teachers  of  the  city  schools  with  seventy  different  plants, 
each  of  which  in  hundreds  and  thousands  of  specimens,  for 
the  use  of  pupils  studying  botany. 

What  a  difference  between  now  and  times  gone  by  ;  and 
yet  people  talk  of  "this  materialistic  age,"  "want  of  charity," 
and  the  like !  The  world  has  become  better,  and  associated 
charities  extend  their  blessings  to  thousands  of  needy  creat- 
ures whose  like  used  to  die  in  fence-corners  and  squalid  gar- 
rets for  want  of  sympathy  and  actual  assistance.  There  is 
less  sentimental  twaddle  and  immensely  much  more  charity 
than  in  former  days  ! 


MANUAL  TRAINING  IN   GERMANY.  295 

3.  Manual  Training  in  Germany. 

Since  the  year  1880  more  than  two  hundred  manual 
training  schools  have  been  opened  in  Grermany.  Several 
of  these,  notably  those  in  Halle,  Leipsic,  Dresden,  Vienna 
(though  this  city  is  not  now  in  Grermany,  it  is  essentially  a 
German  city),  Mxuiich,  Miilhausen,  I  visited  and  reported 
upon  the  work  done  in  them.  When  I  arrived  in  Vienna  I 
found  the  idea  had  made  better  headway  than  could  have 
been  expected  in  conservative  Austria.  Messrs.  Petzel  and 
Herbe,  two  Vienna  teachers,  the  former  of  whom  I  have  men- 
tioned elsewhere  in  this  book,  had  recently  made  a  journey 
through  Germany  for  the  sole  purpose  of  inspecting  the 
manual  training-schools.  Their  report  is  very  intei"esting. 
I  translate  a  few  passages  from  it,  selecting  those  which 
point  out  the  essential  differences  in  these  schools. 

In  ScJiandau,  Saxony,  they  found  three  distinct  classes 
of  schools:  1.  A  school  for  wood-carving  in  which  patterns 
of  geometrical  forms  are  practiced,  until  the  pupils'  skill  is 
developed  enough  to  begin  the  ornamentation  of  articles  of 
use,  such  as  picture-frames,  visiting-card  plates,  stools,  easels, 
arm-chairs,  tables,  etc.  These  things  are  made  of  nut  or 
cherry  wood,  are  then  stained  or  polished,  and  sell  well. 
There  are  more  than  a  dozen  of  these  schools  in  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony.  2.  An  industrial  school.  Here  baskets  are 
woven — baskets  of  all  sizes  and  patterns,  from  the  stout  mar- 
ket-basket to  the  fine  flower-basket ;  peeled  willow  switches, 
split  cane,  and  even  straw,  are  used.  All  articles  made  in 
this  school  find  a  ready  sale.  There  are  six  such  schools 
in  Saxony.  3.  A  braiding-school,  in  which  straw  is  used  as 
material.  Door-mats  and  other  things,  such  as  bottle-pack- 
ing, etc.,  are  made  here.  These  braiding  and  industrial 
schools  sold  goods  for  5,372  marks  in  one  year.  There  are 
seventeen  such  schools  in  Saxony. 

In  Dresden,  Saxony,  a  manual  training  school  purely  for 
educational  purposes  is  established.  It  was  opened  in  1881 
with  forty-seven  pupils,  and  had  in  1887  as  many  as  one 


296    DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

hundred  and  seventy-five,  of  which  fifty-six  were  between 
six  and  eight  years  of  age.  Only  cartoon  or  pasteboard 
work  and  work  in  wood  is  done  here.  The  latter  consists  of 
joiner-work  and  carving.  As  in  all  other  German  manual 
training  schools,  the  children  learn  to  use  tools  by  making 
articles,  not  merely  doing  exercises,  as  is  done  in  Paris.  It 
is  quite  amusing  to  see  the  boys  find  the  necessity  of  leaving 
nothing  plain,  but  carve  furniture  as  neatly  and  handsomely 
as  artisans.  In  a  number  of  boy-asylums  (see  article  "  Kna- 
benhort")  in  Dresden  manual  occupations  ai*e  also  intro- 
duced. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  modeling  is  introduced  and 
very  successfully  taught  in  the  blind  asylums  in  Saxony. 
Groups  of  twenty  children  and  more  are  taught  in  one  class, 
and  with  almost  incredible  dexterity  these  children  model  in 
clay  and  wax,  led  only  by  their  sense  of  touch.  They  are 
thus  initiated  into  the  world  of  forms,  and  seem  to  enjoy 
life  better  in  consequence  of  it.  One  must  have  seen  these 
blind  children  at  work  to  believe  it  possible. 

The  school  visited  had  three  classes.  In  Class  I,  only 
geometrical  forms  are  made,  but  with  an  accuracy  that 
might  put  to  shame  many  a  seeing  child.  In  Class  II,  forms 
of  life  are  made — leaves,  plants,  animal  heads,  and  entire 
animal  forms.  An  elephant,  not  larger  than  a  man's  fist, 
yet  every  part  of  which  was  in  exact  proportion  and  as  well 
built  as  the  "much-lamented  Jumbo,"  is  still  vividly  im- 
pressed in  the  visitor's  memory.  It  was  made  by  a  boy 
totally  blind  !  In  Class  III,  wax-flowers  are  made.  These 
are  so  astonishingly  ti-ue  to  nature,  that  no  one  can  believe 
it  unless  he  has  seen  it  done.  Fuchsias,  rose-buds,  and 
other  flowers  were  imitated  in  wax  incredibly  true  in  num- 
ber of  leaves,  thickness  and  size  of  leaves,  petals,  and  stamens, 
except  in  color — that  the  teacher  had  to  add.  What  a  world 
of  forms  is  opened  to  such  children,  who  thus  efi'ectually 
learn  to  see  with  their  finger-tips !  One  blind  boy  in  this 
institution  found  a  radish  in  the  garden.  He  picked  it  up, 
carried  it  to  his  own  bedroom,  and  there  imitated  it  in  clay 


MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  GERMANY.  297 

or  wax.  When  he  brought  his  work  to  his  teacher,  the  lat- 
ter was  much  pleased  to  see  that  his  instruction  had  made 
the  boy  self -active. 

In  Stolberg,  Saxony,  the  visitors  found  a  school  in  which 
pasteboard-work,  book-binding,  and  joinmg  is  done.  No 
boy  over  fourteen  years  of  age  is  here  admitted.  Instruc- 
tion is  offered  after  school  hours.  (Course  like  that  in 
Dresden.) 

In  Aue,  Saxony,  on  the  slope  of  the  Erz  Mountains,  a 
most  remarkable  school  is  established.  It  is  a  tinsmith- 
school,  and  therefore  ought  to  be  classed  among  the  special 
or  industrial  schools.  It  offers  instruction  to  tin  and  zinc 
workers  only.  It  is  mentioned  here  simply  because  it  has 
pupils  of  school-going  age. 

In  Markneukirchen,  Saxony,  near  the  Bohemian  line,  a 
single  man,  an  enthusiast  in  manual  training,  has  established 
a  school,  and  teaches  scroll-sawing  and  wood-carving.  It  is 
not  a  money-making  affair,  but  a  purely  educational  enter- 
prise. 

In  Adorf,  Saxony,  a  fine  and  well-attended  manual 
training-school  is  maintained  by  the  city  authorities,  in 
which  joiners',  turners',  and  cairvers'  work  is  taught.  The 
Eoyal  Saxon  Ministry  of  Instruction  aids  this  school  with 
the  stipend  of  eight  hundred  marks  per  annum.  The  great- 
est attention  is  paid  to  wood-carving. 

In  Zwickau,  Saxony,  a  school  of  this  kind  was  opened 
in  1882  ;  it  has  now  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  pupils.  Car- 
toon or  pasteboard  work  is  here  the  favorite  occupation. 
The  course  is  well  conceived,  and  innumerable  objects  of 
practical  value  are  made  here.  It  would  need  two  pages  of 
close  print  to  mention  them  all.  A  wonderful  taste  in  se- 
lecting paper  and  colors  to  make  the  articles  pretty  is  ex- 
hibited, and  all  the  articles  have  a  i*eady  sale.  The  first  task 
in  wood-work  is  to  hollow  out  a  square  piece  of  birch-wood 
for  a  pencil-box.  This  makes  the  boys  learn  the  use  of  the 
chisel,  then  a  spoon  is  carved  out  ;  after  that  and  similar 
tasks,  ornamental  carving  begins.    Every  object  made  has  a 


298     DKESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

practical  use,  and  in  ornamentation  every  line,  every  curve, 
every  spiral  applied  is  in  harmony  with  the  form  of  the  ob- 
ject, or  its  use. 

Very  few  schools  will  be  able  to  surpass  the  results  of 
this  one.  There  are  tools  enough  in  this  school  to  supply 
each  pupil  with  an  entire  set,  and  he  is  held  responsible  for 
their  condition.  The  aim  of  this  school  is  purely  educa- 
tional, and  the  teachers  hope  that  "it  will  accustom  the  boys 
to  work  ;  train  their  hands  to  acquire  skill  ;  direct  their 
will-power  upon  the  useful  and  beautiful  ;  give  them  an  in- 
sight into  industrial  pursuits,  as  well  as  a  comprehension  of 
the  forms  of  art-industry,  and  thus  prepare  not  only  a 
greater  number  of  skilled  artisans  and  thinking  men,  but 
also  create  a  desire  for  more  and  more  artistic  work  in  the 
purchasers — that  is,  get  people  to  appreciate  the  beautiful* 
recognize  beauty  in  designs,  and  discriminate  between  genu- 
ine artistic  work  and  shoddy  imitation." 

In  Leipsic,  Saxony,  the  manual  training  school  gave  the 
visitors  much  food  for  reflection,  especially  the  normal 
school  for  manual  training  recently  opened.  I  have  re- 
ported upon  this  at  length  t^see  page  265), 

In  Halle,  Prussia,  in  the  great  experimental  station  of 
education  in  Germany,  the  "  Francke-Stiftungen,"  maintain 
a  flourishing  manual  training  school.  There  are  also  four 
"Knabenhorte"  (boys-asylums)  in  which  manual  work  is 
taught.  Outside  of  the  "  Francke-Stiftungen  "  there  is  a 
manual  training  school  in  the  city,  which  is  reserved  for  the 
pupils  of  the  high-schools.  The  sons  of  the  raost  influ- 
ential and  wealthy  families  attend  it,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  increases  with  eveiy  term. 

In  Berlin,  Prussia,  the  manual  training  schools  are 
under  the  protection  of  her  Majesty  the  Empress  and  Queen 
Victoria.  One  of  these  schools  is  situated  in  the  Falk-Gym- 
nasium,  another  in  the  Lessing-Gymnasium.  Other  schools 
have  been  opened  since  1887.  Also  a  normal  school  for 
manual  training  teachers  is  established,  and  all  eflForts  are 
raade  to  come  up  to  the  standard  of  Leipsic  and  Vienna. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  GERMANY.  299 

In  Bremen  and  other  towns  of  northern  Germany, 
schools  of  this  kind  are  in  a  flourishing  condition,  but  the 
report  referred  to  says  nothing  about  them. 

In  Gorlitz,  Prussia,  these  schools  are  the  best  in  Prussia, 
as  those  in  Leipsic  are  the  best  in  Saxony.  The  teachers  in 
Gorlitz  avoid  all  money-making  efforts,  and  base  their  in- 
struction strictly  upon  educational  principles — that  is  to  say, 
they  are  not  moved  by  such  considerations  as.  In  what  way 
may  this  or  that  occupation  benefit  the  town  ;  but  how  may 
it  benefit  the  pupil  in  developing  his  latent  talents  ? 

In  Wuste-Giersdorf,  Prussia,  the  school  has  a  more 
worldly  object,  namely,  to  draw  the  children  away  from  the 
unwholesome  trade  of  weaving,  which  has  for  centuries  been 
the  leading  trade  of  the  town,  and  has  shortened  more  lives 
tiian  can  be  told. 

Domhau,  Oberwaldau,  Gottesberg,  and  Rudolfswald, 
villages  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Silesia,  have  similar 
schools,  all  of  which  do  good  work. 

The  gentlemen  who  reported  their  observations  made  on 
a  Journey  through  Saxony  and  Prussia,  say,  '*  It  is  the  unani- 
mous opinion  of  all  concerned  that  the  boys  who  have  gone 
through  a  course  of  manual  training,  and  then  chosen  a 
trade,  are  climbing  the  ladder  of  promotion  faster  than 
other  apprentices."  A  well-informed  gentleman  in  Gorlitz, 
maintains  tliat  the  tradesmen  and  owners  of  factories  select 
the  pupils  of  the  training  schools  in  preference  to  unskilled 
hands,  and  give  them  the  best  testimonials,  saying  they  are 
accustomed  to  work,  and  therefore  are  more  diligent  as  well 
as  more  skilled. 

The  following  two  pages  of  drawings,  representing  many 
useful  things,  are  inserted  hei'e  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  of 
the  variety  of  articles  made  of  wood  in  various  schools  of 
Germany.  They  are  reproductions  of  the  Swedish  slojd 
system.  Slojd  (pronounce  sloid)  is  a  Swedish  word,  and 
may  be  rendered  in  English  by  the  word  skill,  having  in  its 
modern  application  particular  reference  to  manual  skill. 
The  drawings  are  not  by  far  as  handsome  as  those  from 


300    DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

2  a. 


Fios.  276-895. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  GERMANY. 


301 


Figs.  296-313. 


302     DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

Paris,  but  they  are  eminently  fit  to  illustrate  the  one  vital 
difference  between  the  French  and  German  or  Swedish 
schools,  to  wit :  In  France  the  pupils  learn  the  use  of  tools 
by  doing  exercises  ;  in  Germany  they  produce  useful  arti- 
cles, and  thereby  learn  the  use  of  tools  indirectly  ;  or,  in 
France  the  boys  learn  the  grammar  of  manual  work,  in 
Germany  the  work  itself,  which  carries  the  grammar  with  it. 

Figs.  276-313. 
1.  Peg  used  in  calculating-machine.  2a.  Net-weaving  needle.  26.  Pen- 
holder. 3a.  Flower-prop.  36.  Pencil-holder.  4.  Slat  for  writing  names  of 
plants.  6.  Wash-clamp.  6.  Plug.  7.  Paper-knife.  8.  Loom-bow.  9.  Butter- 
spattle.  10.  Ruler.  11.  Stand.  12.  Spoon.  13.  Hammer-handle.  14.  Spoon. 
15.  Chisel-handle.  16.  Butter-spoon.  17.  Kitchen-board.  18.  Stocking-stretch- 
er. 19.  Sugar-shovel.  20.  Large  stocking-stretcher.  21.  Sickle-sharpener. 
22,  23.  Clothes-hooks.  24.  Gardener's  plug.  25.  Axe-handle.  26.  Soap-dish. 
27,  Hack  knife.  28.  Grocer's  shovel.  29.  Bread-comb.  30.  Flower-stand.  31. 
Bow  used  in  calculating-machine.  3a.  Foot-stool.  33.  Large  spoon.  34.  Wash- 
beater.    35.  Loom-roll. 

5.  What  I  saw  in  Munich. 

It  was  on  the  16th  of  March  that  I  reached  Munich,  the 
day  on  which  in  Berlin  the  Emperor  William  was  buried. 
Munich  looked  like  a  widow  in  her  weeds.  From  the  mass- 
ive towers  of  the  "  Frauenkirche  "  and  other  churches  hung 
broad  and  long  black  flags.  All  business  houses  and  in- 
numerable dwelling-houses  had  German  or  Bavarian  flags 
out  draped  with  crape,  or  black  flags.  Not  a  single  store 
was  open.  The  people  promenaded  in  dark-colored  Sun- 
day attire  through  the  streets.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of 
ladies  and  gentlemen  were  seen  wearing  crape  on  the  sleeve, 
and  every  military  officer  had  his  epaulets  and  his  helmet 
craped.  Not  a  variegated  ribbon,  not  a  bright-colored  dress 
was  seen  anywhere  on  the  streets  ;  not  a  peal  of  joyous 
laughter,  but  all  the  signs  of  deep-felt  sorrow,  as  though  all 
belonged  to  the  personal  friends  of  the  dead  emperor,  and 
were  walking  behind  his  hearse. 

From  10  A.  M.  till  4  P.  M.  no  business  was  done ;  no  res- 
taurant, no  cigar-stand  was  open.  At  places  the  slowly 
marching  multitude  stopped  to  view  some  tastefully  ar- 


WHAT  I  SAW  IN  MUNICH.  303 

ranged  funeral  decoration  in  a  shop-window,  the  emperor's 
bust  veiled  with  crape  amid  a  beautiful  and  bountiful  dec- 
oration of  flowers  and  leafy  plants.-  The  day  was  warm, 
sunny,  and  the  air  balmy.  The  churches  were  full  to  their 
utmost  capacity,  and  when  the  dinner-hour  arrived  the  mul- 
titude decreased  perceptibly,  only  to  turn  out  again  after  one 
o'clock  in  full  force  to  take  up  its  slow  march  through  the 
streets.  "  What  a  change  ! "  I  thought.  Twenty-two  years 
ago  William  fought  these  people  and  conquered  them,  and 
to-day  they  consider  him  one  of  their  own. 

Of  course  there  was  no  chance  for  visiting  schools  that 
day ;  but  on  the  following  days  I  spent  some  very  profitable 
hours  in  the  schools  of  the  city.  I  do  not,  as  a  rule,  admire 
German  school  architecture,  but  here  I  gave  way  to  a  burst 
of  enthusiasm,  when  I  saw  a  public  school- house,  and  a  pri- 
mary or  people's  school  at  that,  provided  with  electric  bells,4 
clocks,  and  light,  with  sumptuovis  gymnasiums,  wide  corri- 
dors, and  spacious  school-yards  and  gardens.  But  the  most 
novel  feature  of  this  school  was  that  it  had  a  regular  bath- 
ing establishment,  with  numerous  bath-tubs  that  could  be 
filled  with  warm  and  cold  water.  I  was  assured  that  they 
were  used  quite  frequently.  It  had  been  found  desirable  to 
provide  the  new  school-houses  of  the  city  with  bath-tubs  be- 
cause the  poorer  classes  did  not  possess  this  commodity  in 
their  own  houses. 

'•  If,"  said  the  rector,  "  harmonious  education  is  to  be  our 
aim — that  is  to  say,  the  development  of  a  strong  intellect 
and  a  good  heart — then  the  strong,  vigorous  body  must  be  in- 
cluded, and  the  latter  is  gained  by  good  food,  plenty  of  exer- 
cise in  form  of  manual  work  and  gymnastics,  and  cleanli- 
ness. We  simply  offer  the  means  for  cleanliness  as  a  neces- 
sary requisite  of  an  education." 

The  idea  is  unquestionably  correct.  The  more  home  ed- 
ucation and  parental  care  recedes  in  these  latter  days,  the 
more  must  schools  provide  for  them  by  suitable  substitutes. 
These  provisions  for  cleanliness  in  Bavaria  can  be  defended 
with  precisely  the  same  argument  with  which  warm  dinners 
21 


304    DRESDEN  m  SAXONY  AliD  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA- 

in  Paris  are  defended,  or  vigorous  gymnastic  exercises  in 
Prussia,  or  free  clothes  and  text-books  for  indigent  pupils  in 
America,  They  belong  to  the  sum  total  of  common-school 
education.  It  is  the  business  of  the  state  to  do  the  greatest 
possible  good  to  the  greatest  possible  number,  provided  it  is 
for  the  benefit  of  the  state  as  such.  I  can  not  see  how  we 
can  refuse  to  have  bath-tubs  in  school,  like  the  Bavarians, 
hot  dinners  like  the  Parisians,  manual  work  and  gymnastic 
halls  like  the  Saxons  and  Prussians. 

It  is  but  natural  that  a  school  system  which  has  at  its 
head  a  leader  like  Dr.  Rohmeder  is  in  the  foremost  ranks  of 
educational  progre^.  Here  in  Munich  I  found  flourishing 
manual  training  schools.  Kindergarten,  admirable  primary 
schools,  well-reputed  high-schools,  an  industrial  art-school, 
sundry  special  schools,  such  as  an  art  academy,  conservatory 
of  music,  and  a  university. 

In  a  second-year  grade  I  witnessed  a  lesson  in  orthogra- 
phy, the  results  of  which  were  very  fine.  The  results  of 
an  object  and  language  lesson  were  dictated,  and  all  the  new 
and  difficult  words  viewed  on  the  board.  When  the  work 
was  afterward  examined,  the  teacher  and  I  found  that  among 
forty-fomr  pupils  twenty-one  had  made  no  mistake  what- 
ever; twenty  had  made  one  mistake  in  a  word  the  orthogra- 
phy of  which  is  still  a  mooted  question ;  two  had  made  two 
or  three  mistakes:  and  one  only  had  made  fifteen  mistakes. 
This  last  one  was  a  sickly  child  who  suffered  from  epilepsy. 
The  piece  dictated  was  by  no  means  easy,  and  might  have 
offered  difficulties  to  many  an  older  child. 

From  a  lesson  in  arithmetic  which  followed  I  gathered 
the  following  examples.  The  reader  will  please  notice  that 
this  was  the  second  year: 

43-»-9+7=?       "  6x8-36  =  ? 

32-1-27=?  45^7=? 

28-1-  ?  =  53.  I  of  42  =  ? 

29  how  many  halves  ?  65  —  8  —  7=? 

64  -  19  =  ?  63  -  ?  =  37. 

56=?x6.  8  =  J  of  what  number? 


AN  IDEAL  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  305 

Divide  51  into  3  equal  numbers. 

How  many  whole  ones  are  56  quarters  ? 

It  was  a  pleasui*e  to  see  the  little  urchins  get  up  and  say : 
"  Five  sixths  of  42  ?  One  sixth  of  42  is  seven,  then  five 
sixths  must  be  five  times  that,  which  is  35."  No  slate  or 
pencil  was  used.  I  selected  the  above  examples  promiscu- 
ously from  a  great  number  given  out  in  quick  succession, 
and  solved  orally  more  rapidly  than  I  could  write  them 
down. 

In  a  third-year  grade  I  heard  a  lesson  in  home  geography 
which  reminded  me  vividly  of  Prof.  Schmidt's  historical 
pictures  of  the  city  of  Leipsic  (see  p.  285).  The  teacher  had 
sketched  a  city  plan  on  the  board  and  proceeded  to  widen 
the  children's  horizon  by  starting  from  known  points.  The 
history  of  Munich  greatly  assisted  him,  for  the  city  has  been 
widened  three  times,  and  the  ancient  fortifications  can  still 
be  traced ;  even  the  names  of  the  streets  betray  their  former 
designations.  I  enjoyed  the  teacher's  circumspection  and 
the  tact  with  which  he  drew  into  use  what  of  geographical 
knowledge  was  already  established. 

In  other  classes  I  heard  lessons  which  resembled  the  best 
I  had  heard  elsewhere.  Altogether  I  was  well  pleased  with 
the  results  of  the  primary  schools. 

6.  An  Ideal  of  a  Course  of  Study. 

This  was  found  in  Munich.  Though'  in  many  cities  in 
Germany  I  had  noticed  well-arranged  courses,  this  one  struck 
me  as  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  contain  the  matter 
of  instruction  chopped  into  bits,  but  left  the  teacher  of  each 
grade  free  to  divide  the  matter  according  to  the  needs  of  his 
class.  Of  course,  this  presupposes  a  corps  of  teachers  who 
are  prepared  professionally.  With  us  such  a  course  of  study 
would  hardly  suffice,  since  too  many  of  our  teachers  have 
no  professional  training ;  but  I  wish  to  bear  testimony  to 
the  fact  that  teachers  of  large  experience  and  much  method- 
ical and  didactic  skill  might  be  left  more  free  to  select  the 
matter  of  instruction  than  is  done  in  many  graded  school 


306    DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

systems.  A  little  freedom  in  this  direction  bears  good  fruit. 
The  best  feature  of  the  course  referred  to,  though,  seemed  to 
me  that  each  branch  of  study  was  introduced  by  a  set  of 
principles  of  method,  according  to  which  instruction  was  to 
be  given.  These  "  preambles  "  contain  much  good  sense,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  English  rendition  of  a  few 
leading  sets : 

A.  Reading.  Aim. — Instruction  in  reading  shall  enable 
the  pupils:  1.  To  read  fluently,  with  proper  pronunciation 
and  emphasis ;  and,  2.  To  enable  them  to  make  the  contents 
of  the  reading-matter  their  own  so  that  they  may  obtain  a 
perfect  comprehension  of  the  pieces  under  consideration,  and 
a  taste  for  good  literature. 

(a.)  In  every  grade  of  the  course  attention  is  to  be  paid 
to  the  so-called  mechanical,  logical,  and  (Esthetic  reading. 

(6.)  Since  reading  is  nothing  else  than  a  correct  repetition 
of  the  thoughts  of  others,  a  complete  comprehension  of  these 
thoughts  must  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  reading.  This 
makes  it  necessary :  1.  To  give  the  pupils  a  good  model  in 
reading;  2.  To  awaken  a  comprehension  of  the  subject-mat- 
ter by  skillful  questioning;  3.  To  make  the  pupils  tell  in 
their  own  words  what  they  read ;  4.  To  call  for  the  meaning 
of  an  entire  passage  before  each  sentence  is  treated  separate- 
ly ;  5.  To  call  attention  to  the  forms  of  expression  after  the 
tmderlying  thought  is  understood ;  6.  To  call  for  written  re- 
production of  the  reading-matter  as  often  as  time  and  cir- 
cumstances allow.  In  discussing  the  reading-matter,  the 
unity  of  thought  is  to  be  preserved  by  not  introducing  irrele- 
vant matter ;  but,  for  the  sake  of  thorough  understanding,  it 
is  essential  to  refer  to  matter  previously  treated  so  that  by 
means  of  comparison  and  contrast  new  cognitions  shall  be 
properly  founded  upon  others. 

(c.)  Oral  expression  is  to  be  practiced:  1.  By  accustoming 
the  children  to  speak  in  complete,  well-rounded  sentences; 
2.  By  oral  repetition  of  the  contents  of  a  reading  piece  after 
they  have  been  understood  ;  3.  By  oral  prose  rendition  of 
poetry  ;  4.  By  memorizing  and  declaiming  six  to  twelve  easy 


AN  IDEAL  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY.  307 

model  pieces  from  the  reader.  Proper  emphasis  is  invari- 
ably the  result  of  perfect  comprehension  of  the  matter. 

(d.)  Both  substance  and  form  of  the  reading-matter  is  to 
be  utilized  in  lessons  in  orthography,  grammar,  and  compo- 
sition. 

(e.)  For  history,  geography,  physics,  chemistry,  botany, 
zoology,  etc.,  the  reader  contains  many  valuable  contribu- 
tions which  should  be  used. 

B.  Language.  Aim. — Instruction  in  language  is  to  en- 
able the  pupil  to  apply  the  laws  of  "  New  High  German,"  so 
far  as  they  are  necessary  to  the  pupil  to  comprehend,  speak, 
and  write  the  language  within  the  limited  course  of  the 
people's  school  ;  instruction  in  grammar  is  therefore  to  be 
restricted  to  that  which  is  absolutely  necessary  iu  practice. 

(a.)  In  the  lower  grades  the  pupils  learn  to  speak  and 
write  correctly,  ex  usu — that  is  to  say,  they  are  practiced  in 
the  correct  use  of  word  and  construction  forms  orally  and 
in  writing,  until  that  habit  is  gained  which  results  in  a  cor- 
rect feeling  or  instinct  for  language.  This,  for  the  time, 
guides  the  pupil,  and  in  higher  grades  assists  materially  in 
learning  grammar,  A  pupil  who  has  that  sensitive  ear  for 
language  which  tells  him  whether  an  expression  is  right  or 
not,  will  easily  learn  the  laws  of  the  language  (grammar), 
because  he  recognizes  them  in  his  own  speech  and  in  that 
of  others  ;  while  a  pupil  who  has  failed  to  acquire  skill  in 
the  correct  use  of  the  language  will  only  with  difficulty  ac- 
quire the  grammar,  it  having  to  be  learned  by  memory  alone. 

(6.)  All  forms  and  rules  should  be  deduced  from  models 
taken  from  the  reading-matter ;  proverbs  and  examples  from 
classic  literature  are  preferable  to  any  other  examples.  A 
rule  which  has  been  discovered  by  comparison  should  first 
be  framed  by  the  pupils  themselves,  then  it  may  be  rendered 
more  comprehensive  by  the  teacher,  and  brought  into  defi- 
nite form.  It  is  not  advisable  to  let  more  than  one  rule  be 
searched  for  in  a  paragraph.  One  difficulty  at  a  time  is 
sufficient.  And  a  form  or  a  rule,  once  recognized,  should 
be  practiced  till  it  becomes  the  inalienable  property  of  the 


308     DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

learner.  So,  then,  there  are  three  steps  :  1.  Finding  the 
rule  by  comparison  of  similar  examples  ;  2.  Looking  for 
proofs  of  the  rule  in  literature  ;  3.  Incessant  practice  in  ap- 
plying the  rule  by  tasks  suitable  to  the  age  and  grade  of  the 
pupils. 

(c.)  In  framing  models  for  comparison,  repetitions  are  to 
be  avoided.  New  thoughts  should  be  offered,  so  that,  by  en- 
riching the  treasures  of  the  pupils'  language,  their  stores 
of  thought  shall  be  increased  as  well.  Physics,  natural  his- 
tory, geography,  history,  and  such  branches  as  are  thought- 
bearing,  should  be  made  to  yield  a  plentiful  crop  of  models 
for  language- work,  so  that  the  entire  course  of  study  becomes 
a  homogeneous  whole. 

(d.)  Etymology  should  always  be  based  on  syntax,  in  or- 
der to  enable  the  pupil  to  recognize  the  word  as  part  of  the 
sentence  which  determines  its  form. 

C.  Orthography.  Aim.  — Instruction  in  spelling  should 
aim  at  correct  writing  of  simple  documents,  according  to  the 
spelling  in  vogue,  including  punctuation-marks. 

(a.)  The  means  to  that  end  should  be  to  let  the  words  to 
be  written  be  seen  and  heard  clearly  first.  Afterward  words 
may  be  grouped  and  practiced  according  to  similarity  and 
dissimilarity,  to  awaken  consciousness  of  underlying  rules. 
All  rules  which  suffer  from  too  numerous  exceptions  are  to 
be  omitted. 

(6.)  The  exercises  in  orthography  should  consist  in  oral 
and  written  reproduction  of  words  in  the  form  of  sentences  : 
1.  In  copying  ;  2.  In  dictation  ;  3.  In  writing  memorized 
stanzas  and  prose  paragraphs ;  4.  In  writing  the  pupil's  own 
thoughts. 

(c.)  Material  for  orthographic  exercises  is  found  in  the 
reading-matter,  and  in  every  branch  of  study  on  the  cur- 
riculum. New  words  (technical)  that  occur  in  any  lesson 
should  be  noted  on  the  blackboard  at  once,  and  left  there  for 
some  time. 

(d.)  Incorrect  writing  is  to  be  prevented,  so  as  to  avoid 
the  formation  of  incorrect  word-pictures  in  the  memory. 


CAUSE  AND  EFFECT  IN  GEOGRAPHY.  309 

Words  which  may  give  occasion  for  making  mistakes 
should  be  presented  in  writing,  and  if  possible  in  print,  be- 
fore they  are  dictated.  It  is,  at  any  stage  of  the  course,  bet- 
ter to  avoid  mistakes  than  to  correct  them. 

Other  branches  of  study  are  introduced  similarly,  but  it 
would  go  beyond  the  object  of  this  volume  to  translate 
them  all. 

7.  Cause  and  Effect  in  Geography. 

It  was  a  spirited  lesson  in  geography  that  I  heard  in 
Munich,  and  I  think  it  worth  sketching.  The  children  were 
of  the  same  age  as  our  pupils  in  the  highest  grade  of  the 
grammar-school  course — thirteen  or  fourteen  years,  I  should 
think.  Max)s  were  there  in  abundance,  and  a  handsome 
large  globe  was  brought  in. 

The  teacher  first  stated  the  fact  that  the  heat  equator  is 
not  synonymous  with  the  mathematical  equator  ;  that  it  is 
an  irregular  line  lying  on  an  average  of  ten  degrees  north 
of  the  actual  equator.  Now  he  led  the  pupils  to  find 
causes  for  this  apparently  singular  fact.  Did  not  the  sun 
strike  the  earth  with  equal  force  north  and  south  of  the 
equator  ?  With  the  aid  of  a  large  globe,  on  which  the 
prevalence  of  water  on  the  southern  hemisphere  could  be 
seen  distinctly  by  all  the  pupils  of  the  class,  the  fact  was 
soon  established  that  this  prevalence  of  water  caused  more 
evaporation  than  on  the  northern  hemisphere.  Evaporation, 
however,  they  knew  from  the  little  study  of  physics  they 
had  had,  caused  absorption  of  heat,  while  land  would  radiate 
the  heat  it  received  and  thus  cause  a  higher  degree  of  tem- 
ijeratui-e  in  the  atmosphere. 

Now  proofs  of  this  fact  were  searched  for,  and  it  was  in- 
teresting to  see  how  quickly  the  pupils  reasoned  backward 
from  effect  to  cause.  In  the  Deserts  of  Sahara  and  Gobi  they 
thought  that  they  found  the  effect  of  great  heat  on  large 
bodies  of  land.  In  the  indented  coast-line  of  Europe  they 
found  the  cause  of  a  temperate  climate  and  an  absence  of 
dreary  wastes  of  deserts. 


310     DRESDEJ^  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARU. 

Then  the  climate  of  the  different  continents  was  discussed 
and  the  general  rule  established,  (a)  that  great  bodies  of 
land  have  hot  summers  and  fierce  winters.  Proofs  :  Inner 
North  America,  inner  Asia,  inner  Australia,  even  Russia  in 
Europe ;  (&)  much  water  was  the  cause  of  cool  summers  and 
mild  winters.  Proofs  :  Western  Europe,  South  America, 
Southern  Africa,  and  the  Asiatic  isles  and  peninsulas. 
Water  tempers  the  climate. 

I  was  very  sorry  not  to  possess  skill  in  writing  short- 
hand, because  the  further  part  of  this  lesson  was  truly  ad- 
mirable. I  can  only  give  its  bare  results,  and  must  abstain 
from  even  an  attempt  at  outlining  it. 

The  latitude,  it  was  easily  inferred,  caused  the  climate. 
But  the  latter  was  greatly  modified — that  is,  made  milder  or 
fiercer — by  the  situation  or  elevation  of  the  country.  A  pla- 
teau would  naturally  be  cooler  than  a  low  plain  under  the 
same  latitude.  Quito  in  Ecuador,  and  Para  in  Brazil,  both 
almost  under  the  equator,  were  yet  very  different  in  their 
climates,  the  former  being  situated  ten  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  latter  almost  on  a  level  with  it. 

Mountain-chains  like  the  Andes,  the  Eockies,  the  Hima- 
layas, the  Alps,  etc.,  are  also  causes  of  gx*eat  differences  in 
climate,  as  they  may  protect  the  land  from  certain  atmos- 
pheric currents  and  other  influences.  This  was  proved  by 
the  great  fertility  of  the  eastern  slope  and  the  rainless  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Andes,  also  by  the  two  slopes  of  the  Rockies. 

These  different  considerations  were  summed  up  in  this  : 
Latitude,  formation,  and  elevation  of  a  country  condition  its 
climate. 

But  climate  alone  does  not  make  a  country  a  desirable 
place  to  dwell  in.  Other  things  are  needed  to  make  it  fertile, 
otherwise  Australia  ought  to  be  overcrowded,  whereas  it  is  but 
thinly  populated.  Irrigation  is  an  important  condition.  Look 
at  Western  and  Central  Europe,  at  the  United  States  :  these 
countries  are  admirably  irrigated — i.  e.,  watered  and  drained. 
The  teacher  dwelt  on  this  by  showing  that  the  United  States 
have  in  their  Mississippi  Valley  the  granary  of  the  world, 


CAFSE  AND  EFFECT  IN  GEOGRAPHY.  311 

a  most  ideally  irrigated,  fertile  region.  Fertility  was  traced 
to  irrigation  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  Turkey,  and  Spain. 

Tlie  latter  country  sei'ved  as  an  example  to  prove  that 
climate,  elevation,  and  irrigation  will  not  suffice  to  maintain 
life  if  the  soil  is  not  favorable.  In  Spain  the  forests  that 
used  to  crown  the  lovely  mountains,  and  constantly  feed  the 
picturesque  and  navigable  rivers  meandering  through  the 
valleys,  have  been  uprooted.  Ruthless  extermination  of  the 
forests  had  made  the  hills  bare,  the  rain  had  washed  the  fer- 
tile soil  from  the  unprotected  mountain-sides,  and  the  rivers 
now  dry  up  in  summer  and  threaten  death  and  destruction 
in  spring  when  the  melting  of  the  snow  fills  the  river-beds 
and  causes  inundations. 

So,  then,  proper  soil  is  another  condition  of  life,  and  we 
have  the  principle  that  climate  is  caused  by  latitude,  for- 
mation, and  elevation  of  the  country ;  that  proper  climate, 
favorable  irrigation,  and  good  soil  condition  an  exuberant 
vegetation.  Vegetation,  of  course,  is  a  condition  necessary 
for  the  animal  kingdom.  But,  while  the  latter  depends  for 
subsistence  upon  vegetation,  the  former  is  in  no  small  degree 
dependent  upon  animal  matter  for  subsistence.  So,  again, 
we  have  cause  and  effect.  And  the  chain  lengthens :  latitude 
and  elevation  cause  climate ;  climate  and  irrigation  condition 
vegetation.  All  these  are  necessary  to  support  the  animal 
kindom. 

Where  all  these  conditions  are  favorable,  human  exist- 
ence is  assured  ;  and  the  human  population  of  a  country 
stands  in  exact  proportion  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  these 
conditions.  This  was  conclusively  demonstrated  by  the 
population  of  North  America.  The  United  States,  situated 
in  the  temperate  zone,  traversed  by  lofty  mountain-ranges 
which  afford  admirable  irrigation,  possessing  on  the  whole 
a  very  fertile  soil,  had  all  the  conditions  of  an  exuberant 
vegetation  and  support  of  animal  and  human  beings.  Con- 
sequently, we  find  them  populated  by  about  sixty  millions, 
while  north  and  south  of  them,  in  Canada  and  Mexico,  the 
population  is  comparatively  sparse. 


312     DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

The  pupils  were  almost  breathless  with  attention,  and, 
when  called  upon,  gave  geographical  facts  in  support  of  the 
teacher's  assertions  quite  readily.  I  was  told  that  this  was 
a  review  lesson,  which,  while  offering  new  vistas  into  the 
science  of  geography,  caused  the  pupils  to  brush  up  their 
knowledge  of  geographical  facts. 

The  task  given  out  for  the  next  lesson  was :  "  Find  proofs 
for  the  truths  we  have  discovered  to-day." 

"  Will  they  be  able,"  I  asked,  "  to  find  more  proofs  ? " 

"  I  should  think  so ! "  was  the  reply  of  the  teacher.  "  They 
worry  their  fathers,  mothers,  uncles,  and  aunts  for  further 
proofs;  they  consult  the  libraries,  they  ransack  every  source 
of  information,  until  they  find  proofs.  A  truth  thus  dis- 
covered, as  we  did  in  this  lesson,  acts  like  leaven,  it  grows 
and  induces  the  learner  to  proceed  in  his  investigations. 
And  it  will  scarcely  be  necessary  to  recapitulate  these  facts, 
for  indigenous  thoughts  are  like  words  engraved  with  steel 
into  granite,  while  borrowed  thoughts,  such  as  are  learned 
by  heart  from  the  printed  page,  are  words  written  with  a 
reed  on  dry  sand;  the  next  rain  will  wash  them  out." 

8.  "  Knabenhort  "  (Asylum  for  Boys). 

In  Germany  and  Austria  it  has  been  repeatedly  remarked 
in  Parliament  and  teachers'  meetings  that  a  degeneration  in 
the  manners  and  morals  of  youth  is  noticeable  in  late  years. 
It  is  claimed,  not  in  Europe  alone,  but  with  us  too,  that  the 
male  youth  grows  rough  and  unmanageable  by  being  allowed 
to  run  wild.  Short-sighted  people  have  laid  the  cause  of 
this  fact — if  fact  it  be — at  the  door  of  the  common  school. 
Speculations  are  rife  as  to  proper  remedies,  and  I  am  glad  to 
notice  here  that  a  most  effective  one  has  been  found  which 
deserves  to  be  imitated  in  the  United  States. 

Mr.  R.  Petzel,  a  teacher  in  Vienna,  whom  I  took  occasion 
to  mention  elsewhere,  has  addressed  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment in  regard  to  this  matter.  I  take  pleasure  in  presenting 
an  abstract  of  his  essay.  If  we  admit,  for  the  sake  of  the 
argument,  that  the  morals  and  manners  of  our  boys  are  less 


"KNABENHORT"   (ASYLUM  FOR  BOYS).  313 

commendable  than  in  former  years,  we  must  in  justice  also 
admit  a  very  vital  change  in  the  social  condition  of  the 
families  whence  these  boys  come.  Only  about  a  generation 
ago,  the  cities  were  crowded  with  thousands  of  tradesmen 
and  artisans  who  had  their  own  workshops,  in  which  the 
boys  were  apt  to  be  found  at  work  after  school  hours.  To- 
day machine- work  has  absorbed  the  many  little  shops,  and 
huge  factories  with  tall  chimney-stacks  and  steam-engines 
perform  the  work  which  formerly  diligent  workmen  did  at 
home.  The  men  are  in  the  factories  from  6  A.  M.  till  6  P.  M., 
and  often  later  here  in  Europe.  Thousands,  yea,  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  women  have  found  occupation  within  the 
gloomy  and  sooty  atmosphere  of  these  factories.  The  great 
battle  for  subsistence  deprives  parents  of  time  and  inclination 
to  look  after  their  children.  And  the  pubUc  schools  have 
not  increased  their  educational  activity  in  the  same  ratio  in 
which  home  education  has  receded.  School  is  what  it  was,  a 
school  for  instruction,  not  so  much  an  asylum  of  education. 
Though  it  has  increased  its  usefulness  immensely,  the 
prevailing  social  misery  overpowers  its  influence.  Where 
formerly  it  was  an  adjunct  to  home  education,  it  is  now  ex- 
pected to  be  both  school  and  home  at  the  same  time. 

The  author  referred  to  says :  "  It  would  lead  us  too  far  to 
refute  the  claim  that  faulty  treatment  in  school  causes  this 
degeneration,  for  schools  can  not  correct  the  manners  and 
morals  of  children  while  they  are  not  within  its  pale  of  in- 
fluence. But  it  seems  desirable  to  call  attention  to  a  remedy 
the  good  effect  of  which  we  have  noticed  in  many  places. 
It  is  the  establishment  of  boys'  homes  or  boys'  asylums. 

"  The  great  majority  of  children  in  cities  come  from 
very  poor  families.  The  parents,  in  this  age  of  machine  and 
factory  labor,  are  compelled  to  leave  their  children  unat- 
tended during  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  and  many  boys 
take  advantage  of  this  to  run  wild  in  the  streets.  It  is  an 
ancient  truth  that  unemployed  hands  work  mischief.  Such 
unemployed  children  are  apt  to  suffer  from  neglect.  In  the 
larger  cities  of  Germany  societies  have  been  formed  whose 


314    DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

aim  it  is  to  collect  children  of  school-going  age  who,  for 
want  of  proper  home  influence,  ai'e  in  danger  of  being  lost 
in  the  paths  of  vice.  These  children  are  gathered  in  rooms 
called  "Childrens'  Homes,  or  Boys'  Asylums,"  after  school 
hours,  and  are  there  supervised  by  suitable  persons,  chiefly 
teachers  of  the  common  schools,  and  employed  pleasantly  in 
such  a  manner  that  their  entire  education  is  assisted  and 
supplemented. 

"  These  asylums  are  not  schools;  they  are  intended  to  re- 
store (or  act  as  substitutes  for)  the  missing  home-training. 
The  boys  here  learn  circumspection  and  discretion  ;  are 
trained  to  order,  obedience,  regular  activity,  and  good  man- 
ners. They  are  here  kept  from  the  degrading  influence  of 
the  street  and  back-alley  companions.  Only  teachers  who 
have  the  reputation  of  being  philanthropists,  and  who  gov- 
ern by  the  Christian  spirit  of  love,  are  employed.  That  the 
efforts  of  these  societies  are  not  in  vain  can  be  observed  in 
the  "  Knabenhorte  "  of  Munich,  Leipsic,  Dresden,  Halle,  Co- 
logne, Frankfort,  and  other  cities.  To  show  how  these  insti- 
tutions work,  we  will  go  into  a  more  minute  statement  of 
their  programme. 

"  Soon  after  dinner  on  days  when  there  is  no  school,  and 
on  school  days  after  four  o'clock  P.  M.,  the  boys  come  to  the 
'  Hort,'  and  remain  till  seven,  at  some  places  till  eight,  in 
the  evening.  There  they  receive  a  lunch  of  milk  and  bread 
at  four  o'clock ;  then  they  do  their  home-tasks  for  school, 
aided,  if  need  be,  by  the  supervisor.  After  that  an  hour  is 
spent  in  social  games  out-doors.  On  rainy  days,  lotto, 
checkers,  dominos,  and  other  indoor  games  are  indulged  in. 
Some  who  like  to  read  are  furnished  with  books — good 
books,  the  best  that  can  be  found.  After  that  an  hour  or 
two  is  spent  in  manual  work.  This  consists  of  folding 
paper,  making  pasteboard  articles,  modeling,  carving  in  plas- 
ter, chiseling,  joiner-work,  scroll-sawing,  and  such  like  work. 
Every  boy  finds  some  favorite  occupation  and  is  kept  at  it. 

"  These  hours  are  full  of  gayety  and  frolic,  and  pure  hap- 
piness seems  to  dwell  here  where  idleness  is  considered  the 


"KNABENHORT"  (ASYLUM  FOR  BOYS). 


315 


blackest  of  vices.  From  time  to-  time  cheerful  songs  are 
sung  in  chorus  while  the  work  goes  on.  At  times  the  super- 
visor tells  thrilling  stories  of  adventure,  or  some  musically 


inclined  member  of  the  happy  family  plays  a  piece  on  a  mu- 
sical instrument,  be  it  only  a  Jew's  harp.  Every  innocent 
enjoyment  is  welcome.     The  manual  training  in  these  asy- 


316     DRESDEN  IN  SAXONY  AND  MUNICH  IN  BAVARIA. 

lums  has  not  the  purpose  of  making  special  artisans,  but  of 
training  the  boys  in  the  use  of  tools,  and  giving  them  occu- 
pation during  their  leisure  hours.  They  make  kites  when 
the  season  of  kites  comes,  make  tops,  carve  and  rig  boats — in 
short,  they  make  their  own  playthings.  With  the  training 
of  the  hand  goes  the  training  of  the  eye,  a  pleasant  stimula- 
tion of  the  intellect,  and  all  this  will  result  in  making  better 
men  as  well  as  better  artisans  of  them. 

"In  summer,  the  boys  play  much  out-doors,  and  the  su- 
pervisor is  one  of  their  own  number.  He  has  no  privileged 
position  in  the  social  games,  save  that  which  his  greater  fei"- 
tility  for  suggesting  and  arranging  games  gives  him.  He 
is  the  boys'  leader  pure  and  simple,  a  true  pedagogue  (boy- 
leader).  Excursions  into  parks  and  out  into  the  commons 
are  frequent.  Baths  are  taken  in  a  shallow  pond  or  stream- 
let. In  winter  skates  are  furnished,  and  tlie  whole  band 
goes  out  skating  or  coasting.  At  every  one  of  these  excur- 
sions the  supervisor  is  among  the  boys,  and  always  '  in  the 
thick  of  it.' 

"  In  order  to  secure  good  supervisors  the  society  pays  a 
good  price — say  four  marks  per  evening.  This  is  a  hand- 
some addition  to  the  teacher's  salary.  In  Leipsic  these  men 
get  a  fixed  addition  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  marks  to 
their  salary  as  common-school  teachers  ;  in  Halle,  six  hun- 
dred marks.  In  order  that  it  may  not  appear  as  though 
these  asylums  are  purely  benevolent  institutions,  a  tuition- 
fee  of  ten  German  pennies  (two  and  a  half  cents)  per  week  is 
asked.  At  Christmas  a  grand  festival  is  held,  for  which 
every  boy  must  do  something.  Deserving  boys  are  clothed 
on  this  occasion;  school-books  are  distributed,  and  even  sav- 
ings-bank books,  with  a  handsome  credit '  to  begin  with.'  A 
real  home  with  all  its  love-tokens  and  various  interests  is 
created,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  boys  love  the  '  Hort,' 
as  children  love  their  home  when  their  parents  are  well 
situated  and  inclined  to  make  home  happy. 

"These  Knabenhorte  have  had  results  which  far  sur- 
pass all  expectation,  and  they  are  now  established  in  every 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  OF  BOYS   IN   PARIS.       317 

large  city  of  the  German  Empire.  A  few  have  just  beea 
opened  in  Switzerland  also.  Strict  order  and  discipline  are 
kept  but  not  that  death-like  stillness  so  frequently  noticed 
in  school.  All  rudeness,  indoors  or  outdoors,  is  punished  by 
an  exclusion  from  a  favorite  occupation,  while  innocent  en- 
joyment is  encouraged.  Many  a  boy  who  was  going  down 
an  inclined  plane  has  been  brought  back  to  the  level  path 
of  duty  by  the  wholesome  influence  of  the  Knabenhort,  and 
thousands  have  been  prevented  from  ever  leaving  it. 

"  No  better  testimonial  can  be  given  to  these  institutions 
than  that  in  many  cities  the  number  of  applications  for  ad- 
mission is  fourfold  greater  than  the  number  of  pupils  that 
can  be  accommodated.  It  has  become  a  gi'eat  j)rivilege  to 
be  admitted." 

The  establishment  of  "  Knabenhorte  "  in  America  may 
be  only  a  palliative  remedy  for  the  correction  of  social  evils 
that  exist  in  an  alarming  degree,  but,  still,  it  is  the  most 
effective  known  as  yet.  A  Knabenhort  may  prove  to  be 
that  ounce  of  prevention  which  saves  the  pound  of  legisla- 
tive cure.  There  is  no  reason  whatever  why  the  girls  might 
not  be  benefitted  likewise. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PARIS. 

1.  Industrial  Education  of  Boys  in  Paris. 

An  Argument. — There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that 
the  Americans  and  Germans  have  solved  the  "manual 
training  question " — the  sensible  resolution  of  American 
school-men  not  to  make  artisans,  but  aim  at  a  many-sided 
training  of  the  hand  by  employing  it.  in  no  definite  trade, 
but  in  occupations  that  are  common  to  many  if  not  all 
trades.  It  is  just  so  with  arithmetic.  If  we  should  follow 
the  dictates  of  the  merchant,  he  would  drive  us  into  business 


318  PARIS. 

rules  at  the  expense  of  other  arithmetical  work  necessary  for 
thorough  training  of  the  mind.  If  we  were  to  follow  the 
artists,  they  would  propel  us  in  another  direction  quite  as 
foreign  to  the  purposes  of  the  common  school.  If  we  were 
to  follow  the  ideas  of  certain  short-sighted  "  practical " 
people,  we  should  have  to  make  tinsmiths',  carpenters',  cob- 
blers' shops,  etc.,  of  our  manual  training  halls.  The  very 
nature  and  character  of  the  American  school  are  opposed  to 
that  ;  though  it  has  often  to  bow  before  the  dictates  of  a 
senseless  spirit  of  utilitarianism,  it  always,  after  a  time,  re- 
turns to  its  true  object,  to  wit,  to  offer  the  multitude  what 
is  of  common  use,  or  to  do  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest 
number. 

In  the  following  pages  I  intend  to  state  accurately  what 
the  Frenchmen  do  in  the  way  of  manual  training.  I  trust 
that  my  readers  will  without  prejudice  read  this  report. 
My  words  may  at  times  sound  enthusiastic,  because  the  work 
is  really  very  fine  ;  but  from  the  start  I  must  emphatically 
assert  that  the  whole  course  of  manual  training  in  Paris,  as 
I  saw  it  in  operation  in  more  than  a  dozen  schools,  starts 
with  an  entirely  erroneous  intention.  It  is  this :  "  We  want 
to  give  our  boys  skill  in  some  trades,  so  that  they  may  be 
able  to  abridge  the  time  of  apprenticeship,  and  get  to  earn 
a  living  at  an  early  age."  Not,  that  I  saw  this  in  print  or 
heard  it  from  the  teachers,  but  it  can  be  read  clearly  and  un- 
mistakably from  all  they  do.  One  more  word  by  way  of  ex- 
planation :  The  schools  I  shall  speak  of  are  not  private 
schools,  nor  special  schools,  but  purely  and  simply  common 
schools,  and  elementary  schools  at  that,  not  high-schools. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  boys'  schools  in 
Paris,*  maintained  from  state  and  communal  funds,there  are 
ninety-nine  (according  to  a  report  of  1887)  which,  having 
room  enough,  have  arranged  a  workshop.  Others  will  fol- 
low soon,  as  I  understood  from  Monsieur  Grandpierre,  the 

*  There  are  one  hundred  and  seventy -five  communal  girls'  schools  in 
Paris. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS.       319 

inspector  of  "  travaux  manuel "  (manual  work).  All  the 
school-buildings  I  saw  which  were  specially  buUt  for  school 
purposes  had  a  large  hall  on  the  first  floor.  This  hall  is  used 
for  three  purposes :  (a)  for  recreation  at  recess  and  on  rainy- 
days  ;  (b)  for  gymnastic  and  military  drill  ;  (c)  as  a  dining- 
hall  at  noon.  Part  of  this  large  hall,  extending  over  the  en- 
tire floor,  is  partitioned  ofiF  for  a  workshop.  All  the  shops 
I  saw  contained  from  twelve  to  twenty  joiners'  work-benches ; 
six  to  ten  lathes  ;  one  or  two  forges;  a  great  number  of 
vises,  tool-boxes,  many  models,  and  much  material,  such  as 
wood,  rod-iron,  stones,  and  imitation  marble  blocks. 

On  the  walls  are  exhibited  models  to  be  reproduced  and 
copied.  These  in  themselves  are  the  course  prescribed. 
There  is  no  printed  course — at  least  not  to  my  knowledge — 
and  I  searched  sufficiently  for  it  to  know  that  there  is  none. 
The  models  are  of  four  kinds :  1.  Of  wood,  being  joiner's  and 
carpenter's  work;  2.  Of  wood  and  horn,  being  turner's  work; 
3.  Of  iron,  being  smith's  work ;  4.  Of  stone  and  plaster,  being 
builder's  work.  The  fourth  kind  does  not  really  belong  to 
the  course,  being  extra  work  of  that  one  particular  school  in 
which  I  saw  it.  In  short,  joiner's,  turner's,  and  smith's  work 
is  learned.  Now,  pause  a  moment,  dear  reader,  and  think 
of  the  consequences.  Here  are  ninety-nine  schools  of  about 
five  hundred  pupils  each.  All  these  boys  learn  the  trades  of 
joining,  turning,  and  forging.  If  not  perfectly,  they  cer- 
tainly get  start  enough  in  these  three  directions  to  feel  in- 
clined to  make  a  living  in  these  trades. 

What  will  these  boys  do  in  a  few  years  when  these  three 
or  four  professions  are  well  provided  with  artisans  ?  Will 
not  the  supply  be  greater  than  the  demand  ?  And  what  will 
the  superfluous  number  of  young  joiners,  carpenters,  turn- 
ers, and  smiths  do,  after  having  been  systematically  trained 
in  these  industries  and  in  no  others  ?  Besides,  what  moral 
right  has  any  government  to  thus  predestine  the  future  of 
thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  boys  ?  It  seems  a  most 
short-sighted  policy.  But,  then,  it  is  argued  that  Paris 
needs  just  these  apprentices,  that  in  these  branches  of  in- 
22 


320  PARIS. 

dustry  Paris  is  particularly  interested,  etc.  Well,  I  am  not 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  population  of  Paris  and  its 
needs  to  prove  the  contrary,  but  I  strongly  suspect  that  to 
train  joiners,  turners,  and  smiths  is  a  most  unwise  proced- 
ure, and  that  the  time  will  come  when  there  will  be  an  over- 
production. 

What,  then  ?  Ah !  well,  it  is  claimed,  school  is  not  an  im- 
movable fixture  in  all  its  departments.  It  will  adjust  it- 
self to  changed  circumstances  and  teach  other  trades  when 
others  are  desired.  This  is  so  decidedly  a  French  argu- 
ment that  I  need  not  continue  to  combat  it.  It  is  unmindful 
of  the  sound  principles  on  which  rests  the  entire  practice  of 
the  American  as  well  as  German  common  school. 

I.  Results. — And  now  I  will  proceed  to  state  what  I  saw 
done  in  the  workshops.  My  objection  against  the  work  is 
aimed  at  the  course  and  not  at  the  method  of  teaching.  The 
latter  is  admirable.  So  systematic  and  careful  is  the  teach- 
ing that  its  results  far  surpass  every  expectation  I  had  enter- 
tained. In  Rue  Titon,  eleventh  arrondissement,  I  saw  a  class 
of  twenty-four  boys  at  work  at  their  joiners'  tables  and 
turning-lathes.  The  teacher,  a  skilled  artisan,  went  over 
the  entire  course,  carefully  showing  me  all  the  steps,  and  I 
sketched  some  of  the  models,  knowing  that  "  Augenschein 
gilt  fiir  Beweis."  Others  which  I  failed  to  copy  on  the  spot 
I  copy  from  a  book  of  models.  Though  the  collection  I 
offer  is  not  one  twentieth  of  the  entire  number,  it  is  a  typi- 
cal one. 

A  plain  rough  board  of  hard  wood  a  foot  in  length  is 
given  to  the  pupil  to  plane  smooth,  sand-paper,  and  polish. 
It  may  take  the  boy  a  number  of  weeks  to  accomplish  this ; 
but,  if  it  should  take  him  a  year,  he  is  not  permitted  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  next  piece  of  work  till  that  board  is  found  in 
every  way  correct  as  per  order,  namely,  smooth  and  with 
parallel  corners  and  sides.     (See  Fig.  305.) 

Next  a  square  post  is  to  be  reduced  to  an  octagonal  col- 
umn.    Same  conditions  as  in  task  No.  1.     (See  Fig.  306.) 

Then  saw  and  chisel  come  into  requisition  and  are  used 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS.       321 


in  practicing  "  dovetailing,"  and  very  accurate  work  is  re- 
quired.    (See  Fig.  307.) 


Fig.  303. 


Fig.  306. 


Z 


T3 


DOVE-TAILtNQ. 

Fig.  30?. 


Fig.  308. 


r^M: 


Fig.  309. 


After  thus  leai-ning  to  use  plane,  saw,  chisel,  etc.,  the 
first  joint  is  made.     The  simplest  kind  of  a  frame  is  pro- 


322 


PARIS. 


duced.  (See  Fig.  308.)  The  same  practice  is  had  with  a  box, 
the  joints  of  which  are  made  by  some  pupils  with  dovetail- 
ing.    (See  Fig.  309). 

Among  the  models  furnished  by  the  pupils,  few  of  which 


M 


li 


Fig.  311. 


Fm.  310. 


<^ 43 


Fig.  312. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS.       323 

I  venture  to  copy,  I  found  also  a  joint  (see  Fig.  310)  which 
was  made  of  two  different  kinds  of  wood  which  jRtted  exactly. 
It  was  a  very  intricate  combination,  and  evidently  a  fine 
piece  of  work,  of  which  teacher  and  pupils  were  proud. 

Figs.  311  and  312  show  not  only  how  a  frame-joint  is 
made,  but  how  it  is  drawn  first.  Of  course,  there  are  many 
steps  omitted  between  this  and  the  other  models ;  but  I  had 
not  the  time  to  copy  them,  nor  can  it  be  my  object  to 
furnish  a  manual  for  this  kind  of  work.  Indeed,  I  should 
have  to  restrict  myself  entirely  to  reporting  upon  what  is 
done  in  the  manual  training  department,  if  I  should  give 
more  than  a  bare  outline  in  these  pages.  The  few  sketches  I 
offer  are  gathered  here  and  there  in  different  schools.  They 
enable  the  reader  to  see  what  is  being  done  in  the  carpenter 
class.  Thus  the  drawings  are  made,  and  well  made,  as  I 
know,  from  ocular  inspection;  but  these  sketches  do  not  ad- 
equately show  the  real  manual  work  or  its  results.  In  order 
to  illustrate  this,  I  procured  the  work  of  Messrs.  Laubier  and 
Bougueret,  which  exhibits  in  lithotype  the  models  made  by 
the  pupils  of  a  school  in  the  Rue  Tournefort.  They  show 
the  methodical  steps  in  acquiring  a  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
saw  and  chisel,  and  I  offer  the  models  here  in  the  hope  that 
they  may  better  state  what  is  done  in  the  Parisian  schools 
than  a  whole  volume  of  description.  Appended  to  these 
models  will  be  found  some  samples  of  joiner's  work.  All 
the  models  are  rough  as  yet,  and  prove  unmistakably  that 
this  is  boys'  work,  but  it  also  proves  the  methodical  skill  of 
the  teachers.     (See  Figs.  313-329,  and  also  Figs.  330-339.) 

II.  Partitioned  off  from  the  joiners'  and  turners'  hall  is 
the  forge,  and  here  the  work  of  locksmiths  and  toolsmiths 
is  done.  Strong  steel  vises  and  anvils  are  found  here,  though 
somewhat  smaller  than  adults  would  want  them.  They  are 
well  placed,  and  the  boys  here  work  with  much  zeal,  and 
the  teacher  acts  with  great  circumspection  to  avoid  accidents 
from  fire  or  dangerous  use  of  metals.  I  am  very  sorry  I  am 
unable  to  offer  in  sketch  illustrations  what  is  done  in  this 
department.    SuflBce  it  to  say  that  the  instruction  is  fully 


!^!'^l^Smfm^ 


ima^- 

Jg^^ 

^^■N*^ 

mK^^m          immmmam 

'U 


M^^ 


^^■■■•■■^H 

^!^^^ 

■  MJii^l 

^^0  B^ib  ^^ 

sHHh  ^h 

/  ^\  ^1 

■■■•{[H 

^^^B   i-i'f^i^lil^H 

||^^^^Ta>'^H 

'\^     HH 

1^3 

■^^H    St^'^^t^H^H 

IgL  ■ 

^  \B 

'■idtSfi 

lJl| 

-17   . 
Fios.  3ia-329.— Pupils'  Work.    Lkarmno  to  use  Saw  and  Chisel 


IXDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS.       325 

as  comprehensive  as  that  in  the  joiners'  department.     The 
copies  of  models  I  ofiPer  in  Figs.  340-348  are  fair  samples. 


Figs.  330-339.-Pcp.ls'  Woek  in  Joining. 


326  PARIS. 

in.  Turners'  TFor/^.— Side  by  side  with  the  work  in  car- 
pentering and  joining  goes  a  course  in  turning.  Not  every 
boy  of  the  class  takes  up  both  occupations,  but  most  of  them 
confine  themselves  to  one  only.  I  am  unable  to  sketch  any 
of  the  great  number  of  drawings  exhibited  and  used  in  mak- 


FiGS.  340-348.— Pupils'  Work  in  Brass  and  Iron. 

ing  the  models — partly  because  I  failed  to  sketch  rapidly 
enough,  and  partly  because  circular  curves  are  rather  be- 
yond my  capacity.  I  must  therefore  rely  upon  the  litho- 
types  referred  to  above  and  offered  on  the  next  page.  I 
select  only  a  few  sets,  because  the  models  show,  as  a  matter 
of  self -evidence,  a  great  deal  of  similarity.    The  sets  I  oflFer 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS.      327 

are  Nos.  1  to  6,  and  12  to  17.    They  show  some  varieties  of 
edged  and  circular  curves. 


FiQS.  349-359.— Pupils'  Work  in  Turning. 


S28  PARIS. 

The  boys  who  do  this  kind  of  work  are  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  years  old.  They  have  a  lesson  of  an  hour  three 
times  a  week.  The  hall  is  cleaned  carefully  of  shavings 
and  dust  after  each  lesson,  and  all  the  tools  are  placed  away, 
or  hung  up  in  rows,  so  that  the  next  class  will  find  every- 
thing "  ship-chape." 

Though  the  boys  have  only  three  lessons  a  week  in  man- 
ual occupations,  they  get  a  great  deal  of  instruction  in  four 
years.  Some  pupils  never  go  beyond  the  most  elementary 
beginnings,  while  others  leai'n  rapidly  and  actually  turn  out 
to  be  skilled  joiners,  turners,  locksmiths,  or  toolsmiths,  as 
the  case  may  be,  when  leaving  school. 

The  secret  of  this  success  is  partly  found  in  the  natural 
aptitude  of  some  children  in  that  particular  direction,  partly 
in  the  fact  that  no  piece  of  work  is  furnished,  no  task  is  set 
unless  a  drawing  is  made  of  it,  such  as  I  furnish  in  the  pre- 
ceding and  following  sketches.  Any  one  who  can  conceive 
a  form  in  such  a  manner  that  he  can  sketch  it  on  the  flat 
surface  can  produce  that  form  also  in  natura,  provided  he 
has  the  necessary  skill  in  the  use  of  the  tools.  And  it  is  this 
happy  combination  of  drawing  and  executing  the  drawing 
which  causes  the  success  of  the  French  manual  occupation 
schools.  Not  one  of  these  halls  in  Paris  and  elsewhere 
in  France  is  without  ample  blackboard  space;  and  it  is 
frequently  used,  as  I  had  occasion  to  observe. 

Though  it  is  the  evident  desire  of  the  teachers  in  these 
halls  to  keep  the  classes  together  and  give  class-instruction, 
the  latter  is  found  impossible,  and  soon  after  a  new  class  is 
admitted  the  pupils  proceed  at  different  paces  and  drift  apart. 
So  the  teacher  has  to  individualize  and  confine  the  attention 
of  a  class  to  a  few  things  which  they  must  do  together. 

IV.  Wood-Carving  and  Inlaid  Work. — And  now  I  will 
proceed  to  give  some  sketches  of  the  work  done  in  ornament- 
ing. The  work  consists  of  M'ood-carving,  scroll-sawing,  of 
''inlaying"  and  veneering.  The  sketches  360  to  367  are  exe- 
cuted in  wood  after  drawings  designed  by  the  class ;  in  a  few 
instances  plaster  is  used.    I  copied  these  few  drawings  partly 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   OF   BOYS   IN   PARIS. 


329 


from  the  class-work,  partly  from  a  hand-book  I  found  m  use, 
partly  f  rora  models  on  exhibition  in  the  "  Musee  Pedago- 
gique."    Though  these  schools  may  not  be  our  ideal  manual 


Figs.  3C0-362. 


rf-14->f« 70 


/ 

/ 

> 

A 

I'loV 

»'-A 

\ 

/^ 

N 

■ii,'—   /' 

k 

k 

/^\ 

/ 

-\ 

Fig.  363. 


Fio.  364. 


occupation  schools,  it  is  evident  from  these  drawings  that 
excellent  work  is  performed  in  them. 

Figs.  363,  364,  and  365  will  be  found  on  subsequent  pages 
among  the  models  in  lithotype.     These  models  begin  with 


330 


PARIS. 


easy  work  and  end  with  remarkably  artistic  work,  all  done 
by  boys  below  fourteen  years  of  age.  Scroll-sawing  is  not 
practiced  as  much  as  in  German  schools.  It  is  chiefly  used 
where  inlaid  work  is  made. 


Fig.  365. 


Figs.  366,  367. 

The  lithotype  copies  of  models  are  less  pretentious  than 
some  work  I  saw  in  the  pedagogical  museum,  but,  as  in  pre- 
ceding collections  of  models,  they  show  the  methodical  treat- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS.       331 


ment  better  than  a  printed  course  could  do  it.  It  would  need 
the  space  of  a  volume  alone  for  a  description  of  all  the  nu- 
merous designs  executed  in  wood  and  plaster.  My  selections, 
however,  I  think,  are  ample. 


t'los.  368,  369.— Pupils'  Work  in  Inlaying. 

He  who  has  not  had  occasion  to  observe  a  person  engaged 
in  wood-carving  will  not  likely  see  much  in  these  models  or 
patterns.  All  who  have  some  knowledge  of  it  will  notice 
that  in  the  samples  offered  distinct  stages  of  the  course  are 
noticeable,  from  the  simplest  outlining  and  stamping  to  deep 
carving.     The  same  designs  are  used  in  inlaid  work. 


332 


PARIS. 


Figs.  370-381.— Pupils'  Work  in  Wood-Caryinq. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  BOYS   IN  PARIS.       333 

Figs.  366  and  367  represent  deeper  carving  and  the  begin- 
ning of  inlaying.  I  saw  such  charming  work,  among  the 
specimens  on  exhibition  in  the  museum  referred  to  above 
that  I  lingered  in  contemplation  of  these  treasures.  I  was 
assured,  by  the  director  of  the  institution,  that  every  piece 
of  work  of  the  entire  collection  had  been  furnished  by  pupils 
of  French  schools,  not  merely  from  schools  in  Paris.  From 
the  paper-folding  done  in  the  Kindergarten  (here  called 
maternal  schools)  to  the  close  of  the  course  of  elementary 
schools  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  even  from  the  work  of 
higher  schools,  samples  are  here  collected.  Some  of  these 
things  might  do  honor  to  skilled  artisans.  I  offer  a  few 
designs  executed  by  higher-grade  pupils  in  Figs.  368  and  369. 

V.  In  modeling  in  clay  the  manual  training  schools  in 
Paris  go  too  far,  it  seems  to  me.  Though  I  saw  most  ex- 
cellent articles  ready  for  exhibition,  and  many  boys  at  work 
on  similar  figures,  I  can  not  suppress  a  lurking  doubt  as  to 
the  genuineness  of  some  pieces  found  in  the  museum.  I 
miss  also  the  strict  methodical  treatment  found  in  all  the 
other  departments  of  manual  occupation.  I  select  a  few 
samples  which  show  so  bold  a  conception  of  form  despite 
the  traces  of  unskilled  labor,  that  I  suspect  the  teacher  lent 
a  helping  hand.  Still,  it  is  claimed  that  the  boys  use  no 
measures,  except  the  eye,  and  that  frequently  they  depart 
from  given  models  and  produce  new  forms. 

My  own  want  of  skill  in  modeling,  I  will  frankly  admit, 
may  lead  me  to  suspect  that  the  boys  "  plowed  with  Samson's 
heifers,"  and  experts  tell  me  there  is  less  difficulty  in  form- 
ing and  constructing  in  clay  than  there  is  in  wood-carving 
While  I  grant  that  the  boys  in  Paris  do  better  work  in  carv- 
ing and  joiner  work  than  those  in  Germany,  vastly  better,  I 
think  the  work  in  modeling,  as  I  found  it  in  Vienna  and 
Leipsic  is  better  suited  to  the  capacity  of  young  pupils,  it 
being  more  in  line  with  elementary  instruction.  In  German 
manual  schools  modeling  of  geometrical  bodies  is  the  first 
step,  then  follow  simple  leaf-forms  which  are  convention- 
alized in  ornaments  afterward. 


334 


PARIS. 


Fius.  382-389. -Pupils'  Work.    Modeling  in  Clay. 


LN'DUSTBIAL  EDUCATION   OF  BOYS   IN   PARIS.       335 


Figs.  390-395.— Modeling  in  Clay. 


23 


336 


PARIS. 


jiuo.  ijyu-aya.— MuuEUNG  in  clay. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   OF  BOYS   IN   PARIS.       337 

The  fact  that  in  Paris  artisans  and  artists,  that  is,  special- 
ists who  are  not  professional  teachers,  conduct  the  manual 
occupations,  is  noticeable  in  every  department,  but  in  none 
more  than  in  modeling ;  while  in  Germany  none  but  bona 
fide  teachers  who  have  passed  through  a  regular  course  of 
training  in  a  manual  training  normal  school  are  seen  in  the 
industrial  halls  or  workshops.  This  explains  why  in  France 
much  is  done  for  effect,  while  in  Germany  the  idea  of  har- 
monious education  is  carried  out  strictly. 


WASH-STAND 

VERTICAL  CUT 


DOOR  JOINT 
(a)  FACE. 

(6)  VERTICAL  CUT. 
(C)  BASE,  HORIZON- 
TAL CUT. 


Figs.  400,  401. 


Manual  Training  in  Evening  Schools.— In  some  French 
and  Swiss  schools  the  course  of  industrial  education  is  ex- 
tended beyond  the  common-school  age.  Evening  schools 
are  arranged.  In  these  post-graduate  courses  the  joiner's 
and  carpenter's  trades  are  taught  and  very  creditable  work 
is  done.  Some  sketches  may  show  the  extent  of  the  course. 
Fig.  400  shows  a  door-joint  and  the  setting  in  of  panels. 
Fig.  401  is  a  more  complicated  affair,  which  is  made  by  sev- 
eral boys,  each  being  charged  with  one  or  two  items,  each 


338 


PARIS. 


of  which  must  be  made  according  to  measure.     The  entire 
work  is  done  by  following  the  drawing  made  previously. 

VI.  Pupils'  Work  in  Building. — In  the  post-graduate 
course  building  is  a  branch  of  study.  The  material  used 
here  is  to  some  extent  cut  to  size  so  as  to  fit  given  models. 
These  models  are  put  together  in  the  way  in  which  our  toy 


VIEW  OF  RAFTER  TIE 


Figs   402.  403. 

building-blocks  in  the  nursery  are  used,  only  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  every  structure  must  comply  strictly  with  a 
drawing,  perspective  and  isometric. 

First,  a  structure  is  made  with  the  miniature  blocks  (imi- 
tations of  pressed  clay),  say,  a  self-supporting  arch,  then  it  is 
drawn.    Another  lesson  is  to  draw  the  object  according  to 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  IN  PARIS. 


339 


certain  given  measures,  and  then  to  build  it  with  the  mate- 
rial prescribed  accurately  according  to  the  drawing. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  what  difficult  structures  are 
expected  from  the  working  lads,  I  will  mention  that  among 
the  beautiful  models  of  imitation  stone  (pressed  clay)  I  saw 
in  a  school  on  the  Boulevard  de  Belleville,  in  Paris,  was  the 
difficult  "  (Eil  de  Bceuf  arch  " ;  an  arch  with  plain  center, 
a  "  vouter  d'arte  "  (a  vault) ;  an  "  arc  descente  biaise  "  (an  in- 
clined arch) ;  an  "  arc  platebande  "  (with  border).  I  counted 
about  sixty  different  structures,  all  of  which  were  erected 


43 S O 


x: 


FftONT  VIEW 


Z7- 


i 


L\ 


I J 

QROUND  PLAN 


CROSS  BEAM 
SADDLE 


o 


Fio.  404. 


without  mortar.  They  were  simple  self-supporting  struct- 
ures. The  drawings  accompanying  these  models  were  stu- 
pendously intricate.  The  sketches  I  submit  here  (Figs.  402- 
410)  are  very  simple,  taken  from  a  hand-book  of  a  Swiss 
teacher.  They  will  in  a  measure  indicate  how  thorough  the 
instruction  is.  Though  being  but  an  infinitesimal  part  of 
the  work,  they  may  show  better  what  kind  of  problems  are 
solved  than  a  number  of  pages  of  text. 

In  discussing  this  subject  I  feel  that  I  have  not  done  jus- 
tice to  the  manual-training  department  as  it  deserves;  but 
my  inability  to  give  more  than  mere  suggestions  must  ex- 
cuse me. 

Figs.  405-410  show  the  details  of  a  vsindow  such  as  is 


340 


PARIS. 


(a)  FACE  OF  CORNER 


|!!!!!!5S!!!!S!555!!!W!!!!!!!!!!5J!J^ 


(C)  CROSS  <^ 


CAP-STONE 


kmvvv\m\m\\\\\\\\m\\\^^^^ 


Fig.  6 

DETAILS  OF 
WINDOW 


(f)  FACE  OF  CORNER 


FiQS   405^10. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   OF   GIRLS   IN   PARIS.       341 

used  on  the  Continent  in  Europe.  There  are  a  great  number 
of  highly  interesting  and  knotty  problems  connected  with 
this  task,  all  of  which  are  solved. 

2.  Industrial  Education  of  Girls  in  Paris. 

This  topic,  though  of  equal  interest  with  that  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapter,  can  be  treated  but  briefly.  A  woman 
may  be  able  to  discuss  it  with  more  skill  than  I.  All  I  can 
do  is  to  furnish  some  facts.  Of  that  I  believe  myself  fully 
competent.     Of  necessity  the  facts  must  be  but  few. 

The  girls'  schools  are  "manned"  with  women  teachers  ex- 
clusively. No  man,  not  even  a  special  teacher,  is  allowed  to 
teach  girls  in  Paris.  The  only  men  who  enter  a  girls'  school 
here  are  the  inspector,  the  maire,  and  doctor  of  the  arron- 
dissement  (ward  of  the  city).  The  principals  of  these  schools 
are  splendid  women,  highly  refined  in  manner  and  address, 
and  well  trained  in  disciplining.  Since  they  are  not  en- 
gaged in  teaching  they  have  not  that  proverbial  look  of 
care  on  their  countenances  seen  among  women  teachers 
here  as  well  as  at  home. 

No  knitting  and  crocheting  is  taught  in  these  schools,  for 
it  is  argued  that  that  kind  of  work  can  be  had  ready  made 
by  machines;  but  sewing  is  taught  to  perfection.  All  kinds 
of  sewing,  plain  and  complicated  (for  it  is  argued  that  that  is 
a  necessity  in  every  household),  and  darning  and  patching, 
are  raised  to  a  fine  art  in  these  schools.  The  results  are 
brilliant.  The  reader  is  referred  to  what  is  said  of  the  in- 
dustrial education 
of  girls  in  Cologne. 
He  will  find  there 
much    that   holds 

good     for    Paris.  ^^  ^^ 

Each  pupil  "xxas  a 

bag  of  strong  canvas  like  the  sketch  in  the  margin,  which 
holds  the  sewing  utensils,  the  patterns,  and  the  work  under 
hand.  It  is  a  very  convenient  bag.  Home  tasks  are  given 
in  sewing,  and  the  bag  is  to  be  carried  home. 


342 


PARIS. 


VERIFYING  A  MEASURE. 

A       E  F       B     B' 


C    8      c 


D     D' 


p        SMALL  COAT. 

^      A   /^B        A'     B. 


C'C    G'  C       D        C     D    ^ 

Figs.  412-416. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   OF   GIRLS   IN   PARIS.       343 


In  one  thing  the  girls'  schools  in  Paris  far  surpassed  any- 
thing I  had  seen  before:  I  mean  in  cutting  out  and  fitting 
garments,  not  only  undergarments,  as  is  done  in  Cologne 
and  elsewhere,  but  dresses,  cloaks,  hoods,  bonnets — that  is, 
all  the  garments  for  children  and  adults.  They  are  made 
in  miniature  form  by  fitting  them  to  dolls  first.  Drawings 
are  made,  the  patterns  are  then  cut  out  of  manila  paper. 
After  these  are  found  coiTect  (see  Fig.  413,  "Verifying  a 
Measure ")  tlie  stuff  (commonly  calico  or  merino)  is  cut  ac- 
cording to  the  patterns,  and  the 
garment  is  basted.  Then  again  it 
is  fitted;  at  last  finished.  It  is  la- 
borious work ;  but  the  great  variety 
of  garments,  from  a  boy's  vest  to  a 
woman's  cloak,  adds  interest  to  the 
work. 

The  upper  grades  have  a  text- 
book for  this  study  (costing  twenty 
cents),  entitled  "  Coupe  et  Confec- 
tion de  Vetements  de  Femmes  et 
d''Enfants.''^  I  can  in  no  better  way 
illustrate  the  work  going  on  than 
by  copjnng  some  of  the  patterns  I 
saw  cut  out.  They  must  speak  for 
themselves.  The  figures  and  letters 
attached  agree  with  the  ones  given 
in  a  short  description  furnished  by 
the  children. 

Whether  this  course  of  instruc- 
tion is  a  wise  one  ;  whether  under- 
neath it  is  not  the  same  vital  error 
found  in  the  boys'  manual  training, 
I  must  leave  unanswered,  or  refer  to  the  more  competent 
judgment  of  my  female  readers.  I  merely  state  facts.  In 
the  higher  classes,  I  understand,  other  occupations,  the  so- 
called  genteel  occupations,  are  added  to  the  course,  painting 
on  china,  etc.     I  saw  specimens  of  that  which  were  very 


Fio.  417 


344 


PARIS. 


•fliie.  This,  however,  seemed  to  me  so  foreign  to  the  course 
of  study  in  common  schools  that  I  felt  no  desire  to  further 
inquire  into  it. 

That  there  is  a  strong  desire  to  prepare  the  girls  in  Paris 
for  housewifery  may  be  seen  also  from  the  fact  that  a  reader 


Figs.  418,  419. 


is  used  in  the  upper  classes  of  the  common  schools  for  girls 
entitled  "  Le  Menage :  Causeries  (TAurore  avec  ses  Nieces 
8ur  VEconomie  Domeatique "  ("  The  Household  :  Aurora's 
Talks  with  her  Nieces  about  Domestic  Economy  "). 


DINNERS   FOR  SCHOOL-CHILDREN   IN   PARIS.         345 

From  the  composition-books  I  inspected,  I  copied  a  few 
headings  on  account  of  their  significance.  They  character- 
ize the  Parisian  female  education  : 

1.  "  The  History  of  a  Bird  that  had  lost  its  Liberty." 

2.  "Review  the  Events  of  the  Year  1887  that  concern 
you." 

3.  "What  Wishes  have  you  formed  for  yourself  and 
your  Family  at  the  Beginning  of  the  New  Year  ? " 

4.  "  What  will  most  enhance  the  Comfort  and  Welfare 
of  a  Family,  and  why  ? " 

5.  "  Domesticity,  the  Noble  Virtue  of  Woman." 

That  drawing  is  not  neglected  in  the  girls'  schools  in 
Paris  may  be  seen  from  the  two  specimens  (Figs.  418,  419)  of 
work  done  from  plaster  casts,  by  girls  ten  and  eleven  years 
old.  I  insert  them,  and  think  the  artist  has  reproduced 
them  accurately  (see  page  344). 

3.  Dinners  for  School-Children  In  Paris, 

The  problem  how  to  obtain  regular  afternoon  attend- 
ance, yet  give  the  school-children  the  much-desired  recrea- 
tion, avoid  cold  lunches,  and  not  worry  the  mothers  at  noon, 
who  are  almost  all  hard-working  women,  this  very  com- 
plex problem  is  satisfactorily  solved  in  Paris.  About  eighty- 
two  per  cent  of  the  pupils  stay  in  school  during  the  noon- 
recess,  and  are  fed  from  the  school-kitchen.  The  large  hall 
found  in  every  communal  school  in  Paris,  and  which  I  men- 
tioned elsewhere,  is  used  as  a  dining-hall.  Long  tables  and 
benches,  that  can  be  folded  together  and  removed  when  mili- 
tary and  gymnastic  drill  is  to  be  had,  are  set  up  by  the  con- 
cierge (janitress)  shortly  before  noon,  and  the  children 
march  down  from  their  class-rooms  in  slow  procession. 

On  a  counter  at  a  window  of  the  kitchen  are  placed  some 
three  hundred  to  four  hundred  tin  plates  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  tin  bowls.  Each  child,  as  it  passes  the  window,  gets  a 
bowl  of  delicious  soup  and  a  plate  with  meat  and  some  vege- 
tables. Then  he  marches  to  his  seat.  The  whole  process  of 
dealing  out  does  not  last  longer  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 


346  PARIS. 

Each  child  hrings  with  him  a  chunk  of  bread  and  a  small 
flask  of  wine.  Do  not  get  disgusted  dear  reader  !  It  is  wine, 
red  wine,  very  inoffensive,  drinkable  wine  ;  though  you 
might  drink  a  gallon  of  it,  it  would  not  cause  intoxication. 
Still,  I  grant  that  water  would  be  better.  But  such  is  France. 
Wine  belongs  as  much  to  a  dinner  in  Paris  as  water  does 
with  us,  and  I  did  not  feel  over-anxious  to  play  the  rdle  of 
temperance  apostle  while  in  France  for  reasons  Wx)o  obvious 
to  mention. 

The  food  thus  furnished  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  it  is 
furnished  free  to  all  indigent  pupils.  All  who  can  pay  do 
it.  From  the  teachers  I  understood  that  few  parents  send 
their  children  without  the  necessary  obolus.  The  price  of  a 
dinner  (dejeuner)  is  ten  centimes  in  some  schools,  fifteen 
centimes  in  others,  or,  in  our  money,  two  or  three  cents. 
Think  of  it!  Good,  nutritious  soup,  a  plateful  of  well- 
cooked  meat  and  vegetables  (potatoes,  beans,  peas,  lentils,  as 
the  case  may  be),  and  gravy — all  for  two  or  three  cents.  I 
could  scarcely  believe  my  ears  when  I  heard  "  A  meal  for 
two  (or  three)  sous,''''  yet  it  is  a  fact,  and  I  saw  the  boys  pay 
cheerfully. 

Children  who  live  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
school-house  go  home  to  get  their  dinner,  but  the  majority 
remain  in  the  hall  or  yard,  and  are  under  the  supervision  of 
a  teacher  till  the  afternoon  session  begins.  It  can  not  be 
emphasized  too  much  tliat  cold  lunches — particularly  if  they 
consist  of  pastry — are  abominations,  and  we  Americans 
might  learn  something  from  these  Frenchmen  in  feeding 
multitudes,  except  in  partaking  of  alcoholic  drinks,  for, 
alas !  we  know  that  only  too  well. 

Now,  of  course,  my  female  readers  will  want  to  know 
something  of  the  bill  of  fare.  I  copied  the  one  prescribed 
for  February  in  a  school  on  Rue  de  Recluse  St.  Martin, 
M.  Z.  Bertrand  director.  The  bill  is  changed  every  month, 
so  as  to  afford  changes  as  the  season  dictates  them.  There  is 
no  school  on  Thursday  ;  that  day  is  as  firmly  established 
a  school  holiday  in  Paris  as  Saturday  is  with  us. 


GYMNASTIC   AND   MILITARY  DRILL   IN   PARTS.       347 

Menu  for  February. 

First  and  Third  Week  of  the  Month. 

Monday  :  Soup  with  haricot-beans,  mutton-stew,  and 
beans. 

Tuesday  :  Soup  with  boiled  beef,  brown  cabbage. 
Wednesday  :  Onion-soup,  veal-roast,  fried  potatoes. 
Friday  :  Soup  with  boiled  beef,  macaroni. 
Saturday  :  Soup  with  sorrel  and  greens,  mutton,  lentils. 

Second  and  Fourth  Week  of  the  Month. 

Monday  :  Potato-soup,  mutton -stew,  peas. 
Tuesday  :  Soup  with  boiled  beef,  haricot-beans. 
Wednesday  :  Soup  with  rice  and  greens,  veal-stew. 
Friday  :  Soup  with  boiled  beef,  fried  potatoes. 
Saturday  :  Soup  with  lentils,  mutton  with  peas. 
This  is  a  two-cent  institution  ;  the  fare  for  three  cents  is 
more  sumptuous.     ^^  Bon  appetit." 

4.  Gymnastic  and  Military  Drill  in  Paris. 

In  my  former  reports  I  have  said  nothing  of  the  excellent 
gymnastic  exercises  in  German  schools,  though  I  was  strong- 
ly tempted  to  do  so ;  but  it  would  have  involved  the  neces- 
sity of  sketching  the  human  body,  and  that  is  beyond  my 
capacity  as  an  artist.  Any  presentation  of  gymnastic  exer- 
cises in  print  without  sketch  or  outline  illustrations  would 
be  stale  reading-matter,  and  therefore  a  senseless  undertak- 
ing. Hei"e  in  Paris  the  "  study  "  of  gymnastics  has  a  few 
peculiar  features  not  found  anywhere  else,  and  I  will  there- 
fore mention  them : 

1.  Fencing  is  taught,  not  with  foils  and  swords,  but  with 
hazel-sticks  of  considerable  length.  It  was  a  novel  sight  for 
me  to  see  the  boys  go  through  a  regular  course  of  fencing 
exercises  in  which  the  strokes  fell  heavy  and  thick  but  were 
parried  skillfully  except  once,  when  an  unemployed  hand 
stuck  out  too  far,  and  that  was  the  teacher's  hand. 

2.  Each  boys'  school  has  a  rifle  company,  consisting  of 


348  PARIS. 

the  upper  grade  of  pupils  and  called  "  bataillon  scholaire." 
They  are  furnished  with  Chassepot  rifles  (breech-loaders) 
somewhat  reduced  in  size,  very  light,  and  blind.  The  boys 
can  not  shoot  with  them,  but  use  them  in  their  disciplinary 
drills.  Knapsacks  containing  the  necessary  utensils  for 
cleaning  the  gun  and  clothes  when  on  a  march  complete 
the  outfit.  Every  company  has  a  drum  and  fife  corps.  I 
believe  that,  when  the  present  generation  of  French  boys  is 
grown  up  to  manhood,  France  will  have  a  better  army  than 
at  present,  for  what  I  saw  of  French  soldiers  much  reminded 
me  of  our  militiamen  in  peace.  The  French  soldiers'  march- 
ing was  slouching  and  anything  but  inspiring. 

The  discipKne  in  the  lower  boys'  school  in  Paris  is  rigid 
tc  a  fault  in  the  class-room,  corridors,  and  yard.  I  really 
believe  what  one  teacher  told  me  :  "  We  used  to  be  very 
lenient  to  the  pupils;  but  the  wonderful  discipline  of  the 
German  soldiers  and  the  fact  that  they  have  to  begin  that 
discipline  in  school  at  an  early  age,  induced  us  to  change 
our  tactics.  I  think  we  are  beginning  to  see  an  improve- 
ment in  our  pupils,  and  hope  to  see  the  young  men  of  our 
country  cope  with  the  Germans  in  strength,  order,  and  obe- 
dience in  a  generation  or  two  from  now.  It  is  slow,  ux)-hill 
work ;  but  the  people  of  France  are  determined  to  proceed 
upward,  not  downward."  The  man  was  no  braggart;  but, 
having  observed  during  many  months  the  influence  of  a 
century  of  public-school  and  army  discipline  in  Germany  in 
both  boys  and  men,  I  doubt  sincerely  that  the  Frenchmen 
will  ever  be  able  to  "  catch  up  "  with  the  Germans  in  that 
respect. 

5.  Equipment  of  School-rootis  in  Paris. 

The  scholars'  desks  and  seats  hero  are  much  better  than 
in  Germany,  much  more  convenient,  but  not  near  so  well 
adapted  as  our  American  single  desks  and  seats.  Rarely  are 
more  than  fifty  pupils  seated  in  a  room.  On  the  nicely 
tinted  and  scrupulously  clean  walls  (in  a  few  schools  I  saw 
them  covered  with  fresco  ornaments)  hang  so  many  means 


EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL-ROOMS  IN  PARIS.  349 

of  objective  instruction  that  an  American  teacher  who  still 
believes  in  the  saving  grace  of  the  printed  page  would  shake 
his  head.  I  will  eniimerate :  A  handsome  engraving  of  the 
"  Bill  of  Rights  "  (a  document  as  important  in  French  history 
as  is  our  "  Declaration  of  Independence  ")  and  a  fine  bust 
with  the  inscription  "  R.  F."  (Republique  Franpaise)  are 
seen  over  the  teacher's  desk.  Then  there  is  a  case  with  a 
glass  door  containing  different  scales  with  weights — liquid 
and  long  measures — according  to  the  metric  system.  These 
are  used  frequently  in  arithmetic.  Casts  of  plaster  and 
papier-macM  are  suspended  at  various  places  on  the  walls, 
acting  as  ornaments  and  being  used  as  models  for  drawing. 

Then  there  are  seen  in  rows  a  number  of  charts  for 
object-lessons,  illustrating  natui*al  history,  the  trades  and 
industries,  history,  and  geography.  One  set  of  charts  was  a 
novelty  to  me.  A  description  of  one  of  them  must  suffice. 
In  the  upper  part  was  printed,  under  the  name  "  flax  "  and  the 
proper  botanical  heading,  a  statement  of  where  flax  is  raised 
and  how  it  is  used.  Then  a  bundle  of  flax-stems  with  leaves 
and  blossoms  in  a  good  state  of  preservation  is  fastened  with 
strings  to  the  chart.  Under  that  the  different  stages  through 
which  the  fibers  have  to  go  till  they  can  be  spun  are  shown. 
Then  follow  samples  of  coarse  and  fine  linen  thread.  Final- 
ly, samples  of  linen  are  shown ;  all  this  in  natura,  not  in 
pictures.  The  educational  value  of  such  a  chart  is  indis- 
putable. 

The  same  objective  presentation  is  offered  to  illustrate 
the  manufacture  of  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  stuffs.  Then  fol- 
lows the  leather  industry,  and  so  on.  Every  essential  indus- 
try is  thus  treated.  On  the  chart  headed  "  wheat,"  little  bot- 
tles filled  with  grains,  fiour,  bran,  alcohol,  etc.,  are  fastened 
with  wire.  Different  kinds  of  wool,  wood,  leather,  etc.,  are 
attached  to  charts;  all  the  more  important  minerals  (ores 
and  metals)  likewise.  Then  follows  a  set  of  charts  showing 
the  leaves,  blossoms,  and  fruit  of  plants  in  natura,  not  mere- 
ly in  chromo-lithographic  print.  Each  leaf  is  well  varnished 
to  protect  it  from  moioture. 


350  PARIS. 

Each  class-room  ia  which  primary  geography  is  taught 
is  provided  with  a  heavy  cast  of  a  relief-map  of  Paris  and 
vicinity.  In  the  corner  of  the  room  of  the  two  highest 
grades  stands  a  neat  cupboard  of  white  wood  filled  with  ap- 
paratus such  as  is  used  in  the  studies  of  physics  and  physi- 
ology. The  lower  shelves  are  filled  with  globes,  telluriums, 
and  stuifed  animals  and  birds.  It  is  a  museum  of  no  mean 
importance  for  successful  teaching.  The  treasures  of  the 
museums  were  usually  in  very  good  order.  Now  and  then 
I  noticed  a  chaotic  disorder,  and  I  inferred  that  the  teacher 
who  suffered  his  apparatus  to  get  into  such  disorder  could 
not  be  very  orderly  and  systematic  in  his  discipline  tmd 
teaching.  Where  I  subjected  the  matter  to  a  test  I  found 
my  idea  verified.  VerOy,  human  natiire  is  the  same  at  home 
and  abroad. 

In  a  few  school-rooms  I  found  one  wall  entirely  reserved 
for  meritorious  pupils'  work.  There  I  found,  tacked  to  strips 
of  wood,  hundreds  of  excellent  geographical  maps  colored 
and  drawn  well.  Being  requested  to  pick  out  a  few  from 
this  great  number  to  take  with  me,  I  selected  some  that 
seemed  to  me  to  represent  the  average.  My  hesitation  to 
accept  the  gift  was  cut  short  by  the  pupils,  who  said  without 
reserve  that  I  was  welcome  to  them,  and  the  teacher  re- 
marked that  they  had  an  embarras  de  richesse  and  would 
not  miss  any.  I  shall  treasure  these  maps  as  a  pleasant 
memento  of  my  visit. 

In  most  primary  classes  I  admired  a  set  of  chromo-litho- 
graphed  geographical  charts  representing  "  primary  ideas  " 
of  geography,  such  as  valley,  canal,  glacier,  cape,  isthmus, 
etc.  These  appeared  to  me  of  special  value  in  schools  in 
Paris,  where  the  pupils  grow  up  between  high  houses  and 
rarely  see  anything  else  than  streets.  As  to  geographical 
maps  I  shall  mention  them  under  the  head  of  geography, 
and  therefore  beg  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  next  chapters. 

The  school-rooms  in  Paris  have  more  blackboard  space 
than  similar  schools  in  Germany.  One  board  is  provided 
with  lines  for  music ;  one  is  used  for  drawing ;  it  has  an  ap- 


EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL-ROOMS  IN  PARIS.  351 

paratus  for  holding  plaster  casts ;  another  is  used  for  daily 
work,  such  as  arithmetic  and  writing.  Every  communal 
school  of  Paris  has  a  store-room  in  which  the  more  valuable 
casts,  busts,  and  physiological  apparatus  are  kept.  Each  ob- 
ject is  labeled  and  numbered.  I  counted  as  many  as  one 
hundred  and  eighty  objects,  some  of  very  large  size,  in  one 
school.  What  a  wealth  and  lavish  expenditui-e,  and  what  a 
wise  policy ! 

These  schools  are  by  far  better  ventilated  than  the  schools 
in  Germany.  Except  one  which  had  been  changed  from  a 
mirror-factory  to  a  school-house,  all  the  schools  I  visited  in 
Paris  were  comparatively  well  ventilated  (I  beg  to  refer  to 
the  fact  that  I  saw  them  between  February  2d  and  25th)  and 
had  much  light  falling  over  the  left  shoulder  of  the  pupils. 

It  is  evident  that  the  city  and  state  school  authorities  in 
France  do  not  grudge  the  schools  what  can  serve  to  in- 
crease their  efficiency,  as  far  as  equipment  with  means  for 
objective  instruction  goes.  To  a  complete  equipment  belongs 
also  a  set  of  merit  medals  on  silk  ribbons.  These  medals  are 
of  silver,  neatly  engraved,  having  the  form  of  the  star  of  the 
French  Legion  of  Honor.  The  "  star  pupils  "  wear  the  medal 
during  school  hours,  and  when  school  closes  they  return 
them  to  the  teacher's  desk,  where  they  are  locked  up.  Pu- 
pils of  higher  grades  are  permitted  to  wear  them  on  the 
streets  and  at  home,  and  I  venture  to  assert  that  many  a  stu- 
dent wears  his  medal  with  more  just  pride  than  some  own- 
ers of  the  star  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  The  medals  change 
owners  once  a  month.  The  one  who  gains  the  greatest 
number  of  simple  merits  is  entitled  to  wear  the  silver  badge. 
That  this  is  a  bad  and  very  objectionable  custom  it  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  state ;  but  the  custom  is  so  interwoven  with 
French  ideas  that  it  can  not  easily  be  changed.  It  is  very 
difficult  for  some  people,  even  in  our  country,  to  see  that 
competition  may  be  a  natural  tendency,  but  that  it  is  not  a 
moral  law,  and  that  it  should  not  be  fostered  in  school. 

In  perfect  accordance  with  the  French  character  was  the 
incident  I  witnessed  in  a  school  on  the  Rue  des  Recluses  St. 
24 


352  PARIS. 

Martin.  The  teacher  had  drawn  on  the  board  with  colored 
crayon  an  ancient  feudal  castle,  with  battlements  and  wav^- 
ing  banner,  standing  on  the  top  of  a  mountain.  Below  it  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain  on  the  bank  of  a  river  was  pictured 
a  rude  hut  where  a  poor  fisherman  lived.  Under  the  picture 
stood  an  inscription  which  read,  "Before  1789."  I  inquired 
for  the  object,  and  heard  that  the  teacher  taught  history,  and 
that  this  illustrated  the  cause  of  the  great  French  Revolu- 
tion, the  centennial  of  which  would  be  celebrated  in  1889. 

Nearly  all  the  school-rooms  I  saw  in  Paris  are  provided 
with  gas-fixtures,  the  weather  being  rather  gloomy  in  win- 
ter, and  dark  early  in  the  afternoon.  The  immensely  high 
houses  increase  the  darkness.  Five,  six,  and  seven  seem  to 
be  the  usual  number  of  stories  the  houses  in  Paris  have. 
Houses  with  two  or  three  stories  are  rare. 

6.  Drawing  in  the  Communal  Schools  in  Paris. 

On  former  occasions  much  was  said  of  drawing  as  it  is 
taught  in  the  schools  of  Germany.  Had  I  seen  Paris  sooner, 
I  might,  perhaps,  have  said  less  in  praise  of  what  is  done  in 
drawing  in  Germany,  for  what  I  saw  here  far  outshines  any 
thing  I  saw  across  the  Rhine.  I  must  urgently  request  my 
readers  not  to  express  their  incredulity  (they  will  be  sorely 
tempted,  though),  for  I  brought  the  proofs  with  me,  stamped 
and  signed  by  the  rectors  of  the  schools  where  I  obtained 
them.  I  offer  them  for  inspection  to  teachers  who,  being 
accustomed  to  seeing  inferior  results,  may  be  disposed  to 
doubt  the  statements  in  this  chapter. 

First  and  foremost  of  all  it  may  be  said:  There  is  actually 
no  copying  done  from  the  flat-surfaced  copy  in  the  schools 
of  Paris.  In  the  third  year  of  school  where  instruction  in 
drawing  begins,  solids  are  drawn  at  once.  I  should  have 
to  repeat  my  former  statements,  if  I  intended  to  sketch  the 
course  in  the  lower  grades.  Even  before  the  third  year,  a 
kind  of  drawing  solids  is  found ;  a  simple  object  is  outlined 
in  a  network  of  lines  as  the  following  sketch  shows.  The 
work  is  extremely  interesting  to  the  little  ones.     In  regard 


DRAWING  IN  THE  COMMUNAL  SCHOOLS  IN  PARIS.     353 

to  the  course  the  reader  is  kindly  referred  to  previous  chap- 
ters, in  which  the  method  employed  is  suggested. 


1 

V 

/ 

% 

\ 

/ 

z 

\ 

> 

1 

\ 

/ 

s 

1 / 

i 

\ 

/ 

^ 

— / 

r^ 

/ 

^ 

<_ 

'^ 

N 

^ 

-£. 

A 

^ 

\ 

(o 

f 

_ 

~1  (^ 

( 

b'^ 

1 

1  -^ 

. 

_J  ^J 

V 

y 

Fm.  420. 

When  a  grade  similar  to  our  C  Grammar  (twelfth  year 
of  age)  is  reached,  the  drawing  is  taught  in  a  hall  specially 
arranged  for  the  purpose,  having  north  light.  Here  the 
drawing  tables  and  seats  are  arranged  amphitheatrically,  so 
that  the  plaster  cast,  or 
other  object  to  be  drawn, 
can  be  seen  by  all  pu- 
pils equally  well.  In 
order  to  facilitate  the 
seeing  of  the  object,  a 
blackboard  is  placed  be- 
hind it,  and  drapery  is 

used  for  increasing  the  ^^^  ^^ 

shadow.    The  tables  and 
seats  are  adjustable,  as  the  sketch  in  the  margin  shows. 


354 


PARIS. 


The  hall  looks  more  like  an  artist's  studio  than  a  school- 
room. 

If  I  were  asked,  What  do  these  pupils  draw  ?  I  should  feel 
embarrassed'for  an  answer  to  the  question.  If  I  said,  geomet- 
rical bodies,  plaster  casts  of  relief  ornaments,  plaster  busts, 
casts  of  human  limbs,  torsos  of  statues,  furniture — in  fine, 
anything  that  is  set  before  them — the  answer  would  be  too 
indefinite,  yet  more  definite  than  I  ought  to  give  it.  For 
my  answer  would  not  convey  an  idea  of  the  masterly  me- 


FiGS.  422-427 


thodical  treatment  and  infinite  systematic  care  bestowed 
upon  the  course  of  instruction.  I  came  away  from  several 
schools  loaded  with  drawings  which  teachers  and  pupils 
presented  to  me,  and  these,  I  trust,  will  bear  me  out.  The 
aim  of  this  instruction  is  what  the  true  aim  of  drawing  in 
the  schools  ought  to  be,  and  which  can  be  reached  by  draw- 


SKETCHING.  855 

ing  from  the  solids  alone,  not  by  imitating  flat-surfaced 
copies.  It  is :  to  make  the  pupils  observe  objects  correctly, 
present  them  in  outlines  first  in  tolerably  exact  perspective 
view,  then  shade  them  artistically.  The  specimens  seen  un- 
der the  hand  (not  merely  those  on  exhibition)  were  more 
perfect  than  one,  used  to  seeing  the  pupils  copy,  could  have 
expected.  I  certainly  had  not  expected  to  see  what  I  did  see. 
Side  by  side  with  the  course  of  free-hand  drawing  from 
solids  goes  a  most  rigid  course  of  geometrical  drawing  which 
enables  the  pupils  to  use  the  ruler  and  compasses,  etc.,  and 
gives  them  most  accurate  knowledge  of  isometric  and  in- 
dustrial drawing.  This  course,  as  well  as  that  of  free-hand- 
di*awing,  assists  the  industrial  instruction  in  the  shop  spoken 
of  elsewhere.  The  preceding  sketches  (Figs.  422-427)  are 
only  very  incomplete  indications  of  the  work,  but  as  sug- 
gestions they  may  prove  of  value  to  my  American  col- 
leagues who  are  endeavoring  at  present  to  find  "  the  true 
inwardness  "  of  manual  training. 

7.  Sketching. 

The  skill  of  French  boys  in  sketching  leaves  everything 
behind  that  I  ever  saw  in  other  countries.  At  my  request 
the  principals  of  different  schools  made  me  a  present  of  some 
copy-books  used  daily,  in  order  to  prove  my  assertion  of  the 
sui)erior  teaching  in  the  schools  of  Paris.  The  request  was 
cheerfully  granted  after  the  pupils  had  expressed  their  will- 
ingness to  part  with  the  books.  I  have  these  books  now, 
and  hold  them  ready  for  inspection.  In  them  can  be  seen 
geographical  maps  drawn  hastily,  but  very  accurately, 
sketches  of  animals,  plants,  physical  apparatus,  etc.,  serving 
as  illustrations  to  the  text.  Each  lesson  or  exercise  is  dated, 
and  a  comparison  of  these  dates  enables  one  to  pix)ve  how 
much  more  work  these  pupils  are  expected  to  perform  daily 
than  our  American  pupils. 

The  sketches  I  insert  below  are  cut  out  of  these  books, 
and  I  am  happy  to  say  that  the  artist  has  reproduced  them 
with  all  their  errors  and  short-comings,  so  that  a  true  repre- 


356 


PARIS. 


Fios.  4S8-4S4. 


HOW  GEOGRAPHY  IS  TAUGHT  IN  PARIS.  357 

sentatioa  of  the  work  can  be  offered.  They  are  by  no 
means  exceptionally  fine  specimens.  The  books  contain 
many  more  and  better  ones  than  these,  which  are  selected 
for  insertion  on  accoimt  of  their  convenient  size.  I  trust 
they  will  speak  for  themselves.     See  Figs.  428-434. 

It  would  be  manifestly  unjust  to  speak  of  the  drawings 
on  exhibition  in  the  "  Musee  Pedagogique,"  for  they  are  se- 
lected from  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands.  They  represent 
the  best  work  performed.  I  do  not  mean  to  fall  into  the  mis- 
take of  presenting  what  I  recognize  as  exceptions,  but  the 
average  of  work  done.  As  such  I  wish  to  have  the  work 
regarded.  If  it  were  not  attended  with  too  great  an  outlay, 
I  should  have  those  fine  drawings  of  marble  and  plaster 
busts  which  I  carried  away  from  these  schools  photographed 
and  inserted  in  my  report;  but  it  is  impossible.  If  there 
should  still  be  any  of  my  colleagues  who  persist  in  doubting 
the  results  of  drawing  from  objects  to  be  superior  to  copying 
from  the  fiat  surface,  I  can  only  say,  Go  to  Paris,  and  con- 
vince yourselves. 

One  word  more :  Slates  are  not  used  after  the  first  half- 
year  in  the  schools  of  Paris.  At  the  close  of  the  fij^t  year, 
or  at  most  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  the  course, 
the  daily  work  in  arithmetic  and  writing  is  done  with  lead- 
pencil  or  pen  and  ink.  This  gives  the  young  pupils  a  dex- 
terity in  the  use  of  pen,  pai)er,  and  ink  which  can  not  be 
acquired  where  work  on  paper  is  the  exception,  and  slate- 
work  the  rule,  as  it  is  with  us. 

8.  How  Geography  is  taught  in  Paris. 

Time  was  when  the  average  Frenchman  believed  Ger- 
many to  be  situated  somewhere  near  the  north  pole,  that  her 
inhabitants  were  barbarians,  and  that  wolves,  bears,  and 
foxes  swarmed  in  the  impenetrable  forests  of  the  wild  coun- 
try. "Well,  the  war  of  1870  and  1871  awakened  them  rudely, 
and  the  French  Government  has  since  then  made  heroic 
efforts  to  raise  the  average  degree  of  intellectual  culture  of 
the  people.    A  fortnight  of  careful  inspection  in  the  schools 


358  PARIS. 

of  Paris  has  convinced  me  of  the  thoroughness  of  French 
common-school  education  and  of  the  wonderful  start  up- 
ward which  the  people  have  taken  since  1871.  Side  hy  side 
with  the  communal  schools  there  is  a  system  of  parochial 
schools  kept  by  Catholic  brethren  and  sisters  which  is 
doomed  to  extinction,  since  a  governmental  decree  has  fixed 
the  date  of  closing  these  schools  for  good  on  the  1st  of  Janu- 
ary, 1889.  I  did  not  see  any  of  these  parochial  schools ;  all 
my  observations  were  made  in  communal  schools.  It  is 
here  where  I  saw  very  good  teaching  in  geography. 

In  the  lower  primary  grades  geography  consists  of  object- 
lessons  on  home,  schools,  and  their  environs.  These  close 
during  the  third  year  and  geography  proper  begins.  They 
have  here  a  very  useful  map  resembling  my  silhouette  prac- 
tice maps.  It  is  called  a  mute  map.  It  consists  of  a  black 
slated  canvas,  on  which  are  printed  with  oil-paint  the  out- 
lines of  France,  the  main  rivers,  the  boundaries  of  every 
department,  with  no  name  or  lettering  whatever.  These 
maps  are  very  costly,  and  are  treated  with  much  care.  They 
are  used,  like  my  silhouette  practice  maps,  as  geographical 
blackboards  for  inserting  geographical  data  as  they  are 
learned.  The  work  thus  added  can  be  erased,  and  the  maps 
are  ready  for  another  lesson.  Such  a  mute  map  may  be 
found  in  every  school-room  from  the  third  to  the  eighth 
school  year.  A  set  of  regular  wall-maps  as  we  have  them 
is  used  also. 

There  are  other  means  for  illustrating  geography  such  as 
our  American  schools  have  not.  On  the  wall  of  every 
school-room  (from  the  third  grade  upward)  is  found  a  large 
relief -map  of  Paris  and  vicinity  suspended  in  a  heavy  frame. 
This  map  is  made  of  plaster  and  artistically  colored.  It  af- 
fords an  opportunity  for  illustrating  all  the  essential  topo- 
graphical ideas,  since  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  even  the  city  it- 
self, is  diversified  by  elevations  and  depressions,  shows  an 
island  (in  the  Seine),  rivers,  canals,  harbors,  woods,  railroads, 
etc.  The  map  is  a  neat  piece  of  work,  and  it  must  have  cost 
the  school  authorities  much  money  to  furnish  each  class- 


HOW   GEOGRAPHY   IS   TAUGHT   IN  PARIS. 


359 


{^ 


360  PARIS. 

room  with  a  copy.  On  this  map  may  be  seen  the  new  girdle 
of  forts  drawn  around  the  city.  It  really  looks  as  though  as 
many  soldiers  were  needed  to  invest  and  blockade  the  city 
as  there  are  people  living  inside.  TJiis  double  belt  of  forti- 
fications looks  formidable. 

The  geographical  chromo  -  lithographs  used  have  been 
mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter. 

From  all  these  means  of  instruction  at  the  disposal  of  the 
teacher  it  may  be  Inferred  that  the  instruction  does  not  rely 
upon  rote  learning  and  memory  cram.  I  had  occasion  to 
listen  to  an  oral  examination  in  geography  conducted  by  a 
teacher.     Thus  he  proceeded : 

"  Louis,  describe  a  journey  from  Suez  to  Yokohama " ; 
and  Louis  would  go  ahead  and  start  "  by  proxy  "  in  a  steamer 
from  Suez,  travel  through  the  Eed  Sea,  the  Strait  of  Bab- 
el-Mandeb  (the  Gate  of  Tears  of  the  Arabians),  etc.,  mention- 
ing seas,  bays,  capes,  harbors,  countries,  rivers,  islands,  etc. 
Thus  he  would  recite,  and,  while  he  did  so,  he  drew  on  the 
board  a  hasty  but  pretty  accurate  sketch  of  the  route.  An- 
other pupil  was  called  to  travel  by  railroad  from  Burgos,  in 
Spain,  to  St.  Petersburg,  in  Russia;  another  from  Paris  to 
Moscow,  etc.  I  copy  a  little  map  from  the  book  of  a  pupil 
to  show  that  the  pupils  here  learn  by  seeing  and  doing.  The 
cut  (Fig.  435)  is  an  accurate  copy  of  the  work  except  the 
inscription,  which  I  translate. 

The  second  map,  showing  the  tour  by  water  from  Calais 
to  Marseilles,  is  an  illustration  both  of  the  way  in  which 
examinations  are  conducted  and  of  the  fact  that  commercial 
geography  comes  in  for  no  little  share  of  attention.  This 
second  sketch  map  (a  copy  of  a  pupil's  work)  exhibits  the 
canal  system  of  France.  This  kind  of  examination  work 
seemed  to  me  better  adapted  to  show  what  the  pupils  know 
than  answering  ten  such  questions,  narrow  as  a  razor,  as, 
for  instance.  What  seaport  in  Alabama  ?  What  strait  be- 
tween Alaska  and  Siberia  ? 

I  am  sorry  to  report  that  in  all  this  good  teaching  there 
was  a  bit  of  genuine  humbug.     When  the  teachers  heard 


TRACE 

DU 

VOYAGE  DE  CALAIS 
A  MARSEILLE. 

'/  13  MAB6,  1887. 

rerdunV^' 


Nancy 


■%'"/'//, 


^Troy* 


w 


LyonoV 


Fio.  436. 


362 


PARIS. 


that  I  hailed  from  America,  they  wedged  in  some  American 
geography  and  history.  Their  pronunciation  of  American 
cities  was  barbarous — I  "  reckon  "  as  barbarous  as  a  genuine 
Yankee's  pronunciation  of  French  names  would  be.  How- 
ever, I  was  fire-proof  against  that.  It  did  not  generate  a 
great  deal  of  pleasure  when  the  fom-th  or  fifth  question  in 
American  history  invariably  concerned  Lafayette  and  the 
excellent  services  he  had  i-endered  the  United  States  in  their 
infancy.  When  you  are  reminded  of  a  kind  deed  done  to 
you,  the  remembrance  of  it  ceases  to  be  pleasant.  My  read- 
ers may  imagine  my  surprise  when  in  one  school  the  teacher, 
after  duly  extolling  Lafayette,  said :  '"  Though  the  United 
States  may  owe  thanks  to  France,  we  must  not  forget  that 
we  owe  thanks  to  America  also.  The  citizens  of  the  United 
States  first  among  the  civilized  nations  demonstrated  that  in 
modem  times  the  democratic  form  of  government  is  as  pos- 
sible as  in  ancient  times.  They  gave  the  people  of  France  a 
great  impulse  to  try  it  too.'' 

Due  consideration  is  paid  in  the  schools  of  Paris  to  com- 
mercial geography.  The  railroad  system  of  France  and  Eu- 
rope is  a  subject  of 
much  study,  as  could 
be  seen  from  sketch- 
maps  on  the  blackboard 
and  from  work  done  by 
the  pupils  in  their  jour- 
nals. The  little  map  in 
the  margin  is  an  exact 
copy  of  a  home  task  per- 
formed by  a  girl  twelve 
years  of  age.  It  shows 
the  important  railroads 
of  France.  The  pupils 
draw  different  maps  of 
each  country — topographical,  climatic,  railroad,  canal,  politi- 
cal maps — also  maps  showing  where  the  grape-vine  or  olive 
is  cultivated,  etc.    Tliey  do  this  in  their  blank-books  for  daily 


Fig.  437. 


FRENCH  TEXT-BOOKS.  363 

work  and  not  on  special  drawing-paper.  The  maps,  a  copy 
of  which  is  inserted  in  this  chapter,  are  reprotluced  in  the 
same  size  in  which  they  were  furnished  by  the  pupils. 

In  one  of  the  journals  (pupils'  blank-books  filled  with 
daily  work)  I  brought  with  me  I  noticed  a  remarkable  task. 
It  is  this:  A  statistical  table  of  the  most  noted  countries  of 
the  world,  headed  "Tableau  Comparatif."  This  table  con- 
tains the  comparative  figures  of  their  area,  population,  den- 
sity of  popvdation,  armies  and  navies,  their  productions, 
value  of  exports  and  imports,  tonnage  of  merchant  marine, 
and  sundry  other  items.  I  inquired  whether  this  had  been 
learned  by  heart.  "No,"  was  the  reply;  "this  table  is  to 
cause  an  impression,  nothing  else.  We  dictate  it  and  com- 
pare the  figures,  to  make  our  pupils  see  where  France  stands. 
The  figures  themselves  have  no  abiding  value,  being  subject 
to  frequent  changes ;  but  we  can  not  know  ourselves  unless 
we  compare  oui*selves  with  others."  A  golden  truth — a 
truth  which  will  do  a  great  deal  toward  redeeming  France. 

9.  French  Text-Books. 

The  text-books  I  picked  up  and  examined  in  French 
schools  all  have  the  same  essential  fault  found  in  American 
text-books — they  contain  too  much.  The  arithmetics  are 
very  bulky  and  objectionable  on  account  of  the  multiplicity 
of  "cases"  offered  in  the  different  chapters.  The  geogra- 
phies are  burdened  with  text,  as  ludicrously  incongruent 
with  the  children's  degree  of  comprehension  as  ours  are ; 
but  these  French  books  contain  admirable  maps,  much  bet- 
ter than  many  of  ours.  These  maps,  however,  are  also  to  be 
objected  to,  because  they  are  too  minute,  and  offer  a  multi- 
plicity of  detail  which  must  bewilder  the  pupils.  The  read- 
ers have  much  stale  conversational  matter,  and  do  not  come 
up  in  usefulness  to  the  readers  used  in  German  schools. 
Except  the  primei"s,  which  are  more  carefully  prepared,  the 
French  readers  are  wretched,  and  the  teachei-s  help  them- 
selves by  introducing  other  suitable  reading-matter  wherever 
they  find  it. 


364  PARIS. 

I  noticed  a  few  books  of  great  usefulness,  called  readers, 
to  wit,  a  domestic  economy  for  girls,  a  science  reader  for 
boys,  and  a  number  of  special  readers,  such  as  geographical, 
botanical,  zoological,  and  historical  readers,  which  seem  to 
me  to  meet  a  long-felt  want.  They  are  not  used  as  text- 
books, but  as  supplementary  sources  of  information,  since 
no  special  text-books  for  the  sciences,  such  as  physiology 
and  natural  history,  are  used  in  the  ecoles  primaire  (ele- 
mentary communal  schools). 

Perhaps  the  best  text-book  I  found  in  use  was  the  one 
used  in  the  study  of  history.  It  was  well  illustrated,  and 
presented  history  in  biographies  and  topical  essays.  If  we 
consider  that  France  has  a  history  of  more  than  a  thousand 
years,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  most  scrupulous  econ- 
omy is  needed  to  present  that  which  is  of  essential  impor- 
tance. Paul  Bert's  book  is  also  applied  in  natural  science 
and  history,  but  its  use  is  not  obligatory. 

All  text-books  and  stationery  are  furnished  free  of  cost 
to  the  pupils.  The  city  pays  for  the  "  means  of  instruction," 
and  the  consequence  is,  that  competition  is  killed.  The 
books  are  badly  printed,  the  paper  is  flimsy,  and  the  binding 
shabby.  The  blank-books  furnished  are  miserable,  their 
paper  is  poorly  calendered,  and  the  flimsy  cover  easily  torn. 
American  school  stationery  is  by  far  too  costly,  French 
school  stationery  by  far  too  wretched.  The  two  countries 
represent  the  two  extremes,  while  Germany  seems  to  have 
struck  a  happy  medium. 

10.  How  Eeadeng  and  Spelling  are  taught  in  Paris. 

In  discussing  this  topic,  interesting  to  American  primary 
teachers,  I  regret  that  it  is  difficult  to  fix  sounds  by  signs. 
This  difficulty  may  give  rise  to  misunderstandings,  but  that 
can  not  be  avoided.  I  hope  to  be  able  to  offer  a  few  sugges- 
tions to  young  teachers  who  are  using  the  phonic  method. 
Those  who  insist  upon  spelling,  and  do  not  comprehend  that 
letters  and  sounds  are  not  identical,  may  omit  this  chapter; 
I  have  nothing  new  to  ofPer  them : 


HOW  READING  AND  SPELLING 
QUATRIEME  LEQON 

'BAlGNOt 

etfabjqn; 
;R:Ey:ERD_Y= 

piuines 
mi,  mn,  mu  ni 

SIXIEME  LEQON 


VoituFG 

ri,  ru,ro,  muri, 

-tl,  ^  ^  mil  iL, 
or,  ur,  ir,  mu  ni 


ARE  TAUGHT.      365 

1.  Reading.  —  1. 
The  simple  vowels 
a,  e,  t,  o,  M,  y,  are 
taught  alone  in  the 
schools  of  Paris,  sim- 
ply by  memory.  Such 
aids  as  "t  is  a  little 
boy  throwing  up  his 
cap,"  etc.,  are  used, but 
not  the  word-method. 
The  vowels  are  shown 
in  script  and  print, 
and  pronounced. 

2.  Simple  conso- 
nants are  taught,  as 
the  accompanying 
two  lessons  show.  It 
is  plain  that  no  word 
is  used,  but  simple 
combinations  of  one 
vowel  and  one  conso- 
nant. This  may  seem 
mechanical,  and  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce it  so,  but  there 
is  consistency  in  the 
method. 

Frequent  reviews 
(the  little  primer  has 
one  on  every  third 
page)  prevent  forget- 
ting sounds  previous- 
ly learned.  It  will 
be  noticed,  in  the 
above  and  following 
illustrations,  that  each 
consonant       app)ears 


Fios.  438.  «9. 


366 


PARIS. 


with  the  silent  e  attached  to  it.  This  refers  to  a  peculiarity 
in  the  French  lan^age  which  can  not  be  explained  in  print. 
The  pictures  used  are  very  simple,  and  serve  to  bring  out 
the  particular  sound  to  be  learned,  and  no  others. 


Baxe 


Pipes 


Figs.  440-443. 


The  first  reader  from  which  these  illustrations  are  taken 
contains  no  word  with  greater  difficulty  than  simple  com- 
binations of  one  vowel  and  one  consonant,  as  is  seen  from 
these  words :  Fa  ri  we,  fi  de  li  U,  re  ga  li  a,  qua  U  te, 
a  ma  zo  ne,  ma  xi  me,  ex  po  s4,  ca  ma  ra  de.  (As  a  sign 
of  the  deep-felt  desire  among  Frenchmen  to  regain  Alsace 


HOW  READING  AND  SPELLING  ARE  TAUGHT.      367 

and  Lorraine  from  Germany  may  be  regarded  the  fact  that 
in  this  first  primer  a  small  map  of  those  provinces  is  printed 
to  illustrate  the  word  "Al  sa  ce.*'  The  thing  looks  childish 
and  strangely  incongruous,  but  it  is  bitter  earnest  with  the 
Frenchmen  of  to-day.) 

From  the  most  difficult  and  ]^t  review  lesson  of  this  first 
book  I  quote :  II  pa-ti-ne  ra  sur  le  ca-nal ;  u-ne  mo-de  de 
ri-di-cide ;  le  total  de  la  fac-tu-re.  This  little  book  has 
forty  pages,  and  the  pupils  complete  it  in  about  six  weeks;  it 
never  takes  more  than  three  months. 


Ar 


bre 


ague 


Figs.  444,  445. 


3.  The  second  primer  (the  reader  will  pardon  the  expres- 
sion, but  it  is  used  advisedly;  for  the  first  book,  commonly 
called  primer  with  us,  is  here  divided  into  two  ;  the  one  con- 
taining the  simple  sounds  and  their  combinations,  the  second 
the  more  complex  combinations)  is  finished  also  in  less  than 
three  months,  so  that  at  the  close  of  six  months  at  most  the 
mechanical  difficulties  of  reading  are  overcome.  This  sec- 
ond book  of  sixty-four  pages  contains  such  vowels  as  ou,  oi, 
eu,  oeu,  au,  eau,  ei,  ai,  ie,  and  such  consonants  as  ch,  gn, 
25 


368  PARIS. 

ph,  qu,  gl,  fr,  st,  sp.    Tlie  method  of  this  book  is  best  illus- 
trated by  copying  a  few  lessons: 


gn-i,  gn-o,  gn-a,  gn-6, 
gn-e,  gn-u,  gn-e ; 
gni,  gno,  giia,  gae,  gne, 
gnu,  gnh. 

vigne,  signe,  bagne,  gagne. 
ligne,  digne,  rcgne,  rogne. 
ignore,  chigne,  signal. 
Here  follow  sentences  for  practice. 


br-i,  br-o,  br-u,  br-a,  br-c, 

br-e,  br^. 

bri,  bro,  bru,  bra,  bre, 

brd,  brfe. 

sobre,  bride,  abii,  brigade. 

brode,  abricot,  brutal. 

brume,  arbre,  brave. 


At  the  foot  of  each  lesson  are  given  a  number  of  notes  to 
the  teacher  in  "eye-powder  print,"  which  tell  him  how  to 
proceed.     I  add  one  here  for  illustration's  sake  : 

Procedure. — Object-lesson  on  the  grape-vine,  its  culture,  fruit,  and 
products.  How  many  syllables  in  the  word  vigne  ?  Two,  vi  and  ffne. 
Take  the  second  only.     Drop  or  cover  the  last  letter,  it  is  a  silent  one. 

Now  sound  gn.     Connect  it  with  a,  e,  i,  o,  m,  thus,  gn a,  gn i,  etc. 

Prevent  the  separation  of  the  sounds  till  the  pupils  acquire  skill  in  pro- 
nouncing the  entire  syllable  without  first  analyzing  it.  Exercises  on  the 
blackboard :  Reading  of  the  word  written  in  script ;  reading  of  the  copy 
in  different  forms  and  sizes ;  reading  of  the  copy  from  the  slates.  Use 
the  board  frequently.  Do  not  let  the  chalk  go  out  of  your  hands.  Watch 
over  it,  that  the  lesson  is  not  learned  by  heart.  Change  the  order  of  the 
words  on  the  board  ;  let  them  be  read  in  the  book  backward,  forward,  up- 
ward, downward.  See  to  it  that  the  new  sound  gn  is  articulated  well  in 
all  the  words  of  the  lesson. 

To  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  great  difficulties  in  read- 
ing surmounted  in  this  second  book,  I  will  copy  the  last 
lesson  found  in  it.  It  is  characteristic,  inasmuch  as  it  proves 
that  the  French  teachers  employ  the  same  abominable  tone 
of  sentimental  preaching  that  characterizes  the  reading-mat- 
ter in  some  of  our  first  readers : 

Chers  enfants :  Aimez  vos  parents  et  gardcz-vous  de  leur  jamais  d6- 
Bobeir.  Aimez  votre  maitrc  qui  se  donne  beaucoup  de  peine  pour  vous ; 
^coutez  868  le9ons,  suivcz  scs  conscils.     Aimez  votre  6colc ;  venez-y  tous 


HOW  READING  AND  SPELLING  ARE  TAUGnX.       369 

les  jours  avcc  plaisir  ct  n'y  arrivez  jamais  en  retard.  Aimez  le  travail, 
aimcz  la  lecture.  Ayez  de  I'ordre ;  ayez  aoin  de  vos  vfetenients,  de  vos 
livres,  de  vos  cahiers,  et  de  tous  les  objets  k  votre  usage.  Les  livres 
couteut  cher;  il  faut  aussi  bcaucoup  d'argent  pour  acheter  dcs  vete- 
ments,  des  chaussures  ct  tout  ce  qu'il  faut  pour  votre  nourritnre.  Et 
I'argcnt  coute  beaucoup  de  peine,  beaucoup  de  mal  h  votre  pere  pour  le 
gagner.  L'ordre  luene  k  I'economie,  I'economie  mhne  k  I'aisance,  sou- 
vent  k  la  richesse,  Soyez  bons  pour  vos  freres,  pour  vo3  soeurs  et  pour 
vos  camarades ;  ayez  le  mensonge  en  horreur.  Nc  raaltraitez  jamais  les 
aniaiaux.  Ayez  pitie  de  pauvres,  des  malheureux,  de  tous  ceux  qui 
souffreut  et  qui  sont  dans  la  peine.  Respcctez  les  vieillards.  Aimez  la 
France,  notre  Patrie,  si  grande  et  si  belle.  Dc  retour  de  I'ecole,  rendez 
k  votre  raure  les  petits  services  que  nous  pouvcz  lui  rcndre,  pour  alleger 
son  travail  ct  ses  peincs.  C'est  ainri  que  vous  vous  ferez  aimer,  et  que 
vous  grandircz  en  vous  pr^parant  k  devenir  dcs  hommes  dc  bien. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  our  American  printing'-offices 
are  not  supplied  with  the  types  in  which  the  above  lesson  is 
set  in  France,  for  the  silent  letters  are  marked  in  a  most  in- 
jjcnious  way.  This  kind  of  matter  is  read  at  the  close  of  the 
sixth  month  !  Words  like  vieillards,  animaux,  chaussures, 
travail !  When  I  first  "  struck  "  a  first-year's  class  busy  with 
a  reading-lesson,  and  was  told  how  quickly  the  pupils 
learned  to  read,  I  thought  this  an  exception,  owing  to  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  teacher — as  any  one  would  have  done.  But 
an  examination  in  more  than  a  dozen  schools  in  different 
parts  of  the  city  convinced  me  that  the  case  met  first  was  no 
exception,  but  a  fair  average  sample. 

Now  I  beg  my  American  colleagues  to  consider — 1.  That 
tii3  French  children  do  not  spell  words  and  syllables  for  the 
purpose  of  learning  to  read,  but  "  sound"  exclusively.  2. 
That  they  learn  to  read  with  great  fluency  almost  anythin.'^ 
in  French  print  or  legible  script  that  is  put  into  their  hands, 
after  the  first  year  of  school — and  then  let  the  reader  draw 
the  conclusion  himself. 

The  subsequent  readers  need  not  be  described.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  they  have  the  same  favilts  which  our  American 
readers  have,  and  none  of  their  virtues  and  excellent  quali- 


370  PARIS. 

ties.  They  are  miserably  printed  and  bound,  and  the  cuts 
do  not  come  up  to  our  standard. 

II.  Orthography. — How  is  orthography  taught  ?  By 
avoiding  spelling  (splitting),  and  by  copying  much  of  the 
reading-matter.  The  French  teachers  have  found  the  secret 
of  orthographical  teaching,  to  wit :  The  secret  of  vivid 
knowing  is  vivid  seeing.  Dictation-lessons  are  given  daily. 
Not  detached  words  but  sentences  are  dictated,  and  the  work 
is  corrected  according  to  the  text  of  the  book  from  which 
the  lesson  is  taken,  be  that  the  reader,  geography,  arithmetic, 
or  history.  I  was  presented  with  dozens  of  blank-books 
filled  by  the  pupils  with  their  daily  work  ;  misspelled  words 
are  met  in  them  but  rarely.  I  preserve  these  books  for  in- 
spection. They  bear  the  official  stamp  of  the  rectors  of  the 
schools  ;  and  the  date,  in  the  upper  right  corner  of  every  page, 
tells  how  much  more  practice  in  writing  the  boys  and  girls 
in  Paris  have  than  ours,  whose  work  on  the  objectionable 
slate  is  all  a  fleeting  show.  The  only  class  in  which  a  slate 
is  used  in  the  schools  of  Paris  is  the  first  grade  or  primer 
class,  and  there  only  during  the  first  half-year  ;  and  even 
there  it  is  not  a  slate,  but  a  thin  board  without  a  frame.  The 
lines  are  red,  and  one  side  is  covered  with  a  network  of  lines 
for  drawing  purposes. 

The  penmanship  found  everywhere  in  the  common 
schools  of  Paris  is  not ''  Spencerian,"  but  remarkably  excel- 
lent. The  books  I  brought  with  me  exhibit  truly  admirable 
penmanship.  The  headings  are  written  in  a  bold,  round 
hand,  and  the  arrangement  of  arithmetical  work  very  fine. 
Of  course,  there  is  indifferent  work  here  as  elsewhere,  but 
the  average  is  very  high. 

11.  The  "Mus6e  P^dagogique"  m  Paris. 

The  last  day  of  my  stay  in  Paris  I  devoted  to  the  Museum 
of  Instruction.  It  took  me  some  time  to  find  it.  It  had 
shifted  its  abode  several  times,  but  is  now  in  permanent 
quarters  in  the  Rue  Gay-I-ussac,  No.  41,  a  street  situated  be- 
tween the  Pantheon  and  the  Palais  de  Luxembourg.     The 


THE   "MUS^E  P^DAGOGIQUE"   IN  PARIS.  371 

building  used  to  be  a  convent;  it  has  many  quaint  corners, 
passages,  courts,  and  cool,  shady  rooms  and  corridors.  The 
institution  is  maintained  by  the  state,  and  M.  Martel,  a  gen- 
tleman well  known  in  America,  used  to  be  its  director,  but, 
since  he  has  been  promoted,  M.  Beurrier  is  the  director. 
When  I  presented  my  passe-partout,  and  a  special  card  of 
introduction  from  our  Bureau  of  Education  in  Washington, 
I  was  very  hospitably  received.  I  stated  that  I  was  laboring 
under  a  want  of  familiarity  with  French,  though  I  could 
understand  all  that  was  said,  and  could  speak  it  slowly ;  and 
the  director  called  one  of  his  chief  clerks,  who  spoke  a  com- 
mendable English,  with  that  delightful  French  pronuncia- 
tion which  is  and  always  will  be  a  subject  of  study  to  me. 

Well,  we  started  out  to  see  the  educational  treasures  here 
collected  from  all  parts  of  the  globe.  First  of  all,  the  library ; 
four  large  rooms  full  of  books,  scientific  and  practical, 
chiefly  pedagogical  books,  graced  the  walls.  Ah,  what 
would  I  have  given  to  be  the  owner  of  such  treasures  as 
were  here  collected  !  The  catalogue  contained  the  titles  of 
French,  German,  English,  American,  etc.,  books  on  educa- 
tion. Among  the  latter  I  noticed  Horace  Mann's  "  Impor- 
tance of  Education  in  a  Republic."  The  books  were  well 
arranged  in  cases  according  to  subjects.  One  feature  of  the 
library  was  so  characteristic  that  I  must  mention  it.  The 
chief  countries  had  each  one  separate  case  in  which  were 
collected  samples  of  their  best  school-books  (I  say  ''best," 
because  I  was  so  informed).  In  the  case  reserved  for  Ameri- 
can school-books  I  found  many  well-reputed  books,  as,  for 
instance,  Hepburn's  Rhetoric,  Colbum's  Arithmetic,  Apple- 
tons'  Readers,  and  many  others.  It  was  with  a  feeling  of 
some  pride  that  I  discovered  one  of  my  own  children  among 
the  number,  and  another  in  which  I  had  done  a  good  share 
of  the  work.  The  American  school-books  wei*e  distinguished 
from  those  of  other  countries  by  their  excellent  binding, 
strong  paper,  and  clear  print. 

Then  I  was  taken  into  a  room  which  looked  like  a  book- 
seller's packing-room.    All  the  thousands  of  books  here  hcd 


372  PARIS. 

a  uniform  black  cloth  binding.  Clerks  were  engaged  here 
in  packing  books  in  little  boxes  of  about  a  cubic  foot  in  size. 
The  boxes  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  postal  authorities 
many  a  time  which  was  seen  from  the  mail  labels  pasted  on 
them.  This,  I  was  told,  was  the  circulating  library,  where 
books  were  selected  and  sent  to  candidates  for  examination 
in  the  provinces.  "All  state  examinations  for  professorships 
in  normal  schools,  rectorships  in  common  schools,  superin- 
tendency  and  for  positions  in  higher  schools,  have  to  be  passed 
in  this  building,  and,  to  regulate  and  facilitate  the  studies 
and  preparation  of  the  candidates,  we  lend  them  the  books 
necessary.  The  books  are  returned  by  mail  free  of  postage 
(this  being  a  state  institution)  before  the  examinee  presents 
himself. " 

"  But  is  not  this  a  rather  questionable  procedure,  my  dear 
sir?"  I  asked.  "  Why  should  you  think  so  ? "  "Well,  I 
should  judge  that  this  would  prevent  teachers  from  buying 
books  themselves  ;  does  not  this  circulating  library  make 
them  rely  on  state  aid  ?"  "Ah!  I  see,"  said  the  director; 
"  you  are  from  America,  where  '  help  yourself '  is  the  favorite 
motto.  No,  we  can  not  expect  that  here.  From  time  imme- 
morial the  Frenchman  expects  aid  from  his  Government, 
and  it  would  seriously  diminish  the  number  of  candidates 
for  higher  positions  if  we  were  to  cease  lending  books  to 
them.  This  circulating  library  is  one  of  the  strongest  ties 
that  hold  the  entire  French  teachers'  profession  together. 
Besides,  it  increases  the  usefulness  of  this  museum,  for  all 
the  candidates  for  promotion  and  examination,  when  they 
come  here,  spend  days  and  weeks  in  studying  our  educa- 
tional treasures,  which  we  will  now  proceed  to  show  you." 

And  now  the  gentleman  took  me  from  room  to  room. 
There  was  one  room  entirely  filled  with  objects  for  illustra- 
tive instruction  in  natural  history.  All  kinds  of  fruit  imi- 
tated in  wax  were  seen  here.  Charts  and  pictures  for  object- 
lessons  were  seen  in  such  niimbers  that  a  choice  would  have 
been  a  difRcult  task.  A  room  full  of  pupils'  work  followed: 
penmanship,  drawing,  arithmetic,  composition,  map-drawing, 


THE  "MUSl^E  PEDAGOGIQUE"  IN  PARIS.  373 

etc.,  in  great  stacks,  French,  American,  German,  English, 
Japanese,  etc. — a  wealth  which  it  must  have  taken  much  in- 
genuity and  diligence  to  arrange  systematically. 

Then  there  was  a  glorious  art-hall,  containing  marble 
and  plaster  casts  used  for  drawing ;  a  hall  filled  with  relief 
and  other  maps  as  well  as  pictorial  means  of  instruction  in 
geography;  telluriums,  globes,  etc.,  and  hundreds  of  other 
things,  old  and  new.  There  were  samples  of  school  furni- 
ture in  miniature  and  in  actual  size,  all  imaginable  black- 
boards, reading-charts,  music-charts.  I  was  bewildered,  and, 
though  I  tried  to  hold  on  to  my  nil  admirari,  I  soon  forgot 
that  and  myself,  lost  in  contemplation  of  the  ingenuity  of 
the  schoolmaster.  Here  were  collected  all  the  school  devices 
invented  in  all  the  civilized  countries,  and  those  of  Japan 
and  China  besides. 

I  had  seen  several  museums  of  this  kind  in  Cologne  and 
Berlin  and  in  southern  Germany,  but  this  one  surpassed 
them  all  in  every  respect,  owing  to  the  centralized  efforts  of 
the  Government.  In  an  octagonal  room,  formerly  a  vesti- 
bule, were  selected  models  in  miniature  of  school-houses  and 
plans  of  similar  buildings.  I  was  pleasantly  surprised  to  find 
a  model  of  a  Massachusetts  normal  school,  and  of  a  school- 
house  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.  The  gentleman  who  took  me 
through  this  room  expressed  his  disgust  at  such  school  ar- 
chitecture, saying:  "They  look  like  barracks.  We  want  to 
see  large  portals,  inner  courts,  and  lofty,  airy  structures,  not 
brick  piles." 

Up-stairs  I  saw  the  hall  in  which  the  state  examinations 
are  conducted.  In  alcoves  are  found  the  collections  of 
school-work  prepared  for  world  expositions — Paris,  Antwerp, 
Philadelphia,  and  New  Orleans ;  drawing  in  portfolios,  pen- 
manship and  compositions  in  bound  volumes,  pupils'  work 
from  Japan,  Belgium,  America — an  immense  exhibition. 
One  room  is  reserved  for  a  chemical  laboratory,  another  for 
a  physical  laboratory.  These  are  used  for  lectures  to  the 
teachers  who  pass  through  a  special  course  in  the  natural 
sciences.  The  apparatus  here  collected  would  rouse  the  envy 


374  PARIS. 

of  any  teacher  who  is  obliged  tx3  rely  on  home-made  appara- 
tus. In  the  basement,  in  small  alcoves,  and  broad,  light  cor- 
ridors are  seen  the  results  of  manual  training-schools. 

Here  are  on  exhibit  collections  of  tools  forged  by  pupils, 
specimens  of  joiner's  work,  carpenter's  work,  wood-carv- 
ing, turner's  work,  inlaid  work,  scroll-sawing,  and  building. 
Here  is  also  seen  the  entire  course  of  industrial  education 
for  girls,  beginning  with  paper- work  done  in  the  maternal 
schools  (Kindergarten)  and  ending  with  complete  garments. 
All  departments  are  well  arranged,  systematically  showing 
the  courses  of  instruction  and  the  methods  employed.  It  is 
altogether  a  marvelous  exhibition. 

How  all  else  sinks  into  insignificance  when  these  treas- 
ures, made  by  little  hands  and  comparing  favorably  with 
master-works  of  adults,  are  viewed  by  one  who  is  interested 
in  them!  All  the  priceless  treasures  of  the  Louvre  and  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts  seem  to  lose  their  luster  when  com- 
pared with  these  beginnings  of  art.  It  may  sound  heretical, 
but  I  assure  my  readers  that  I  had  more  genuine  pleasure  in 
this  museum  than  in  looking  at  the  miles  of  painted  canvas 
in  the  Louvre.  My  admiration  and  interest  grew  with  every 
new  room  opened  to  me,  and  I  soon  gave  up  trying  to  pre- 
pare a  detailed  account  of  what  I  saw.  Weeks  of  study  would 
barely  suffice  for  it. 

A  few  items  I  picked  up  may  close  my  report.  How 
systematic  the  instruction  in  geography  is  in  Paris,  may  be 


Fig.  446. 

seen  from  this  fact:  In  a  collection  of  work  furnished  by  the 
pupils  of  the  normal  school  in  Paris  I  noticed  an  ideal  relief- 
map  on  the  margin  of  which  were  placed  other  reliefs  such 
as  seen  in  Fig.  446.  The  work  led  over  from  the  idea  face 
to  surface  of  objects.  The  same  school  had  also  exhibited  a 
number  of  fine  specimens  of  china  painting  and  embroidery. 


A  CALCULATING-MACHINE. 


375 


Tlie  many  devices  for  illustrating  number  lessons  were  be- 
wildering, and  the  director  told  me  frankly  he  was  unable 
to  explain  some  of  them.  One  department  is  filled  with 
children's  toys. 
Among  the  black- 
boards there  seen, 
I  sketch  an  ad- 
justable one.  It 
is  easily  made, 
works  up  and 
down,  and  can  be 
turned.  Fig.  447. 
Had  I  known 
what  ti-easures 
this  quaint-look- 
ing, ancient  build- 
ing contained,  I 
should  have  timed 
my  stay  in  Paris 
so    as    to    spend 

several  days  in  the  museum ;  but  my  departure  was  neces- 
sary, to  fulfill  an  engagement  for  addressing  an  assembly  of 
teachers  in  a  city  on  the  Rhine.  I  am  grateful,  though,  for 
having  lived  to  see  the  "  Musee  Pedagogique  "  in  Paris.  If 
any  of  my  colleagues  should  chance  to  go  to  Paris,  I  advise 
them  urgently  not  to  neglect  to  ask  for  a  permit  to  see  it. 
This,  I  believe,  can  be  readily  obtained  of  Monsieur  Buisson, 
at  the  ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  in  the  Rue  de  Grenelle, 
No.  110,  third  floor,  door  to  the  left. 

12.  A  Calculating-Machine. 

The  "  arithmograph,"  an  apparatus  for  absolutely  correct 
arithmetical  calculation,  was  on  exhibition  in  the  "  Musee 
Pedagogique "  in  Paris.  In  an  educational  journal  pub- 
lished in  Paris,  entitled  "  Le  Progres  de  I'Enseignement  Pri- 
maire,"  I  met  with  a  description  of  the  apparatus.  The  arti- 
cle contains  some  interesting  facts  concerning  the  history  of 


FiQ.  44 


376  PARIS. 

inventions  of  arithmetical  calculators.  I  translate  a  few 
passages  for  that  reason.  The  author  does  not  seem  to  know 
much  of  similar  inventions  in  other  countries : 

"  Pascal  was  convinced  of  the  possibility  of  reducing  all 
arithmetical  calculations  to  mere  mechanical  manipulations. 
He  invented  the  first  arithmetical  machine  in  1642.  Em- 
ploying in  his  work  all  his  extensive  mathematical  knowl- 
edge, he  came  to  believe  in  the  possibility  of  making  an 
apparatus  which  would  successfully  replace  thought  and 
calculation.  This  conviction  led  him  to  expend  large  sums 
in  the  manufacture  of  more  than  fifty  different  devices. 
Nevertheless,  he  did  not  live  to  see  his  speculations  realized. 
Being  the  first  who  undertook  this  kind  of  work,  he  may  be 
said  to  have  shown  the  way  and  to  have  pointed  out  the  aim 
to  be  reached. 

"  The  number  of  those  who  during  nearly  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  endeavored  to  replace  mental  activity  in  solv- 
ing arithmetical  problems  by  mechanical  contrivances  is 
quite  large.  Some  few  of  the  most  noted  are  Leibnitz, 
D^Alembert,  De  Lepine,  and  Dr.  Roth,  all  of  whom  con- 
tinued the  labors  of  Pascal.  Napier  invented  the  calcula- 
tion by  logarithms ;  Thomas  de  Colmar  the  "arithmometre  " ; 
Babbage,  aided  by  the  English  Government,  spent  (or  shall 
we  say  squandered  ?)  a  half-million  of  francs  and  the  best  of 
his  years  upon  a  "  universal  calculator,"  which,  like  so  many 
other  similar  inventions,  remained  incomplete. 

"  It  may  be  said  that,  despite  the  astonishing  amount  of 
labor  that  has  been  employed  in  its  solution,  the  question, 
like  that  of  a  manageable  air-ship,  has  not  yet  been  solved, 
though  it  would  be  presumptuous  to  say  it  will  never  be 
solved.  Still,  the  work  begun  by  Pascal  has  not  been  with- 
out tangible  results.  There  are  several  indispensable  quali- 
ties which  a  calculating-machine  must  have  to  make  it  prac- 
ticable and  applicable  everywhere,  and  it  has  until  recently 
been  impossible  to  furnish  a  device  which  could  boast  of  all 
these  qualities.  It  must  be  inexpensive,  must  be  easily  trans- 
ported and  manipulated.     It  must  be  so  arranged  that  every 


A  CALCULATING-MACHINE.  377 

average  intelligence  is  able  to  make  use  of  it  in  all  con- 
ditions of  life  and  for  all  simple  calculations.  Simplicity, 
indeed,  is  its  most  necessary  condition.  So  simple  it  must 
be  in  its  workings  that  one  would  not  care  to  expend 
brain-power  in  solving  problems  such  as  life  offers  every 
moment. 

"The  'arithmograph^  of  Monsieur  Troucet  offers  all 
these  advantages  at  the  first  glance ;  but  it  works  only  prob- 
lems in  the  four  fundamental  rules — addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division.  The  apparatus  is  remarkably 
simple.  It  has  no  cylinders,  no  cranks,  no  wheels,  no 
springs,  no  mechanical  clock-work,  subject  to  disturbance 
and  disorder,  but  consists  of  a  light  white  board  on  which 
are  fastened  a  number  of  slats  set  in  grooves.  These  slats 
work  independently  of  each  other,  and  are  moved  up  and 
down  by  a  peg. 

"It  can  not  be  asserted  that  the  ' arithmograph,'  like 
many  other  inventions,  is  the  result  of  a  happy  accident. 
On  the  contrary,  the  simpler  an  invention  is,  the  more 
time,  labor,  and  expense  it  takes  to  realize  it.  This  inven- 
tion is  the  result  of  six  years'  hard,  incessant  labor.  The 
passion  of  the  inventor  is  perhaps  the  most  ethical  of  all 
human  passions,  since  it  is  not  destructive,  but  of  benefit 
— if  not  to  the  inventor  himself,  it  is  so  at  least  to  the 
human  race;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  M.  Troucet  will 
find  the  remuneration  he  deserves  before  he  dies.  He 
seems  to  be  a  professional  inventor,  for  he  has  secured 
a  number  of  patents;  but  this  one  is  destined  to  pay  for 
them  all." 

When  carefully  examining  the  apparatus  I  asked  myself, 
"Will  it  not  be  of  serious  evil  consequences  for  the  intellectual 
culture  of  children  to  replace  their  mental  activity  by  a  ma- 
chine ?  For  this  machine  adds,  subtracts,  multiplies,  and 
divides  with  absolute  accuracy,  provided  one  makes  no  mis- 
takes in  touching  the  correct  digits.  All  the  manipulator 
has  to  do  is  to  put  the  peg  into  a  little  aperture  corresponding 
with  the  digit  beside  it  and  pull  the  slat  down  or  push  it  up 


378  PARIS. 

as  the  operation  demands,  and  the  answer  appears  at  another 
hole  provided  for  it.  Or  rather,  Is  not  all  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division  a  mechanical  process 
depending  upon  the  memory  ?  To  me  it  was  and  still  is  a 
perplexing  question.  Perhaps  the  apparatus  will  soon  make 
its  appearance  in  America.  I  leave  my  colleagues  to  decide 
upon  its  merits. 

13.  Crumbs. — Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Paris. 

A  French  flag  (the  tricolor)  hangs  over  the  entrance  of 
every  communal  school-house  in  Paris.  These  flags  look 
rather  shabby,  being  exposed  to  all  kinds  of  weather. 

I  found  a  I'oom  filled  with  plaster  casts,  geometrical  bod- 
ies, and  other  models  for  drawing  purposes,  in  every  school- 
house  I  visited  in  Paris. 

The  city  maintains  many  evening  schools  for  young  men. 
In  one  of  them  I  saw  the  students  model  human  forms  from 
life.  Think  of  a  nude  person  posing  before  a  class  of  unripe 
boys  under  or  little  above  twenty ! 

Drawing  and  mathematics  are  the  chief  subjects  of  study 
in  the  evening  schools. 

Most  of  the  young  boys  and  girls  in  the  schools  of  Paris 
wear  black  blouses,  not  jackets  and  coats.  When  I  asked 
whether  that  was  a  sort  of  uniform,  my  informant  smiled 
and  answered  no  ;  that  was  the  usual  style  of  children's 
outer  garments  in  Paris. 

When  a  guest  or  the  principal  enters  a  school-room  in  a 
boys'  school,  the  pupils  promptly  jump  up  and  salute  him 
by  raising  the  right  hand  to  their  head — that  is,  give  the 
regular  military  salute.  If  the  guest  fails  to  answer  in  the 
same  manner,  they  remain  in  that  position  until  he  does  an- 
swer or  leaves. 

The  pupils  here  are  not  dismissed  by  classes,  but  in 
groups  according  to  the  streets  they  live  in.  All  the  pupils 
of  one  street  go  together  till  they  reach  the  boulevard,  where 
a  policeman  pilots  them  safely  through  the  maelstrom  of 
cabs,  wagons,  and  omnibuses. 


CRUMBS.— NOTES  FROM  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  PARIS.    3^9 

Comparatively  few  children  are  seen  in  the  streets  of 
Paris,  partly  owing  to  the  high  houses,  the  upper  stories  of 
which  they  inhabit,  partly  because  the  French  families  have 
fewer  children  than  the  Grermans,  for  instance. 

The  hissing  sound  sss  1  or  sh-sh-sh !  as  an  order  for  silence, 
is  not  heard  in  Parisian  schools.  Both  male  and  female 
teachers  here,  in  order  to  call  for  silence,  make  either  that 
smacking  soxiud  which  we  employ  in  driving  horses,  or  the 
sound  of  a  kiss.  It  sounds  odd  if  one  is  not  accustomed 
to  it. 

In  the  corridor  of  each  school  in  Paris  is  seen  a  very 
elaborate  and  beautiful  ''  Table  of  Honor "  in  heavy  gilt 
frame,  containing  the  names  of  meritorious  pupils. 

In  one  of  the  girls'  schools  I  noticed  that  canceling  was 
resorted  to  in  the  study  of  arithmetic  as  early  as  the  fourth 
year  of  school. 

In  another  girls'  school,  in  a  class  parallel  to  our  D  Gram- 
mar (fifth  year  of  school),  I  found  girls  of  ten  and  eleven 
years  of  age  working  problems  in  percentage  and  interest. 
This  was  the  problem:  "To  find  the  interest  on  52,100  francs 
for  two  yeai's  and  a  half  at  the  rate  of  3 '75  per  cent." 

The  schools  in  Paris  do  not  teach  singing  as  thoi'oughly 
as  this  is  done  in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States.  Their 
songs  are  not  melodious  and  harmonious,  but  dramatic  like 
the  "  Marseillaise."  The  children's  voices  are  weak,  and  the 
most  difficult  song  I  heard  in  Paiician  schools  was  two-part 
music. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  teaching  seen  in  Paris,  I  am 
confident  that  altogether  too  much  reciting  in  chorus  is  re- 
sorted to.  To  hear  a  class  solve  a  problem  in  chorus  has 
something  like  the  aspect  of  a  panic  in  a  theatre — the  strong 
ones  reach  the  door,  the  weak  ones  are  trampled  under  foot 
or  are  dragged  along. 

To  see  the  happy  crowds  of  French  boys  employed  in 
sawing,  planing,  polishing,  turning,  carving,  modeling, 
building,  etc.,  is  a  sight  never  to  be  forgotten.  They  jabber, 
spit  into  their  palms,  and  handle  hammer,  saw,  and  plane  as 


380  PARIS. 

though  their  lives  depended  upon  the  completion  of  the  work 
under  hand. 

But  to  see  the  pale  and  yellow  countenances  of  all  these 
children,  among  whom  the  red,  healthy,  glowing  cheeks  of 
our  Western  school -children  is  rarely  found,  is  also  a  sight 
worth  remembering,  and  pondering. 

The  number  of  "  ecoles  primaire  "  (elementary  common 
schools)  in  Paris  is  four  hundred  and  fifty-four,  namely,  one 
hundred  and  seventy-four  boys'  schools,  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  girls'  schools,  and  one  hundred  and  five  mater- 
nal schools.  The  latter  have  pupils  below  six  years  of  age, 
and  resemble  the  Kindergarten. 

The  faces  of  the  children  in  Paris  are  not  pretty,  to  put  it 
mildly.     Many  very  ugly  visages  are  seen  among  them. 

Teachers  are  not  the  same  all  the  world  over.  I  noticed 
a  peculiar  indefinable  air  of  immaturity  among  them  here 
in  Paris  which  is  not  found  among  American  teachers. 
Principals  and  inspectors  are  much  more  men  of  the 
world,  since  they  come  in  contact  with  the  world  more 
frequently. 

Among  all  the  teachers  I  saw  in  Paris,  the  women  prin- 
cipals make  the  best  impression.  They  are  very  refined  in 
manners.  They  are  splendid-looking  women,  indeed,  and 
the  teachers  look  up  to  them  with  much  reverence. 

The  principal  of  one  of  the  schools  I  saw  is  an  Alsatian. 
He  had  his  school  in  very  good  trim,  discipline  and  order 
were  perfect,  and  the  results  exhibited  were  quite  commend- 
able. He  spoke  with  great  enthusiasm  of  the  excellent  re- 
sults he  had  noticed  in  German  schools  lately.  During  the 
last  summer  he  had  employed  his  vacation  in  making  a  trip 
through  southern  Gemiany.  When  I  spoke  to  him  about 
the  excitable  nature  of  the  French  children  and  teachers,  he 
said:  "We  know  no  better,  and  think  this  the  normal  state 
of  being.  When  I  was  in  Frankfort  I  wondered  greatly 
about  the  (what  seemed  to  me)  listlessness  of  the  pupils. 
They  were  very  quiet  and  apparently  stupid,  and  raised  their 
hands  only  when  questions  were  asked.     It  was  a  strange 


MAKING  BEAUTY  CONTAGIOUS.  381 

spectacle  to  me.  I  suspect,  though,  that  this  quiet,  slow 
movement  hides  a  great,  robust,  physical,  and  mental 
strength.  France  experienced  something  of  that  strength 
and  discipline  at  her  expense  in  the  war  of  1870-71." 

This  principal  regaled  us  with  a  taste  of  Alsatian  wine 
which  proved  genuine  "  stocking-wine  "  (so  soiu*  that  it  draws 
the  holes  in  the  drinker's  stockings  together).  Do  not  be 
shocked,  kind  reader;  it  was  in  his  own  dwelling  that  he 
offered  us  the  wino.  And  please  remember  that  it  is  not 
well  to  air  your  American  predilections  and  principles  when 
journeying  through  Eui-ope.  When  in  Rome,  do  as  the 
Romans  do ;  and  when  in  Paris,  drink  wine.  Shun  the  water 
as  you  would  poison,  for  reasons  too  near  at  hand  to  men- 
tion them. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

from  other  french  cities. 

1.  Making  Beauty  contagious. 

While  I  greatly  admired  the  beauty  of  the"  French  dis- 
play of  school-work  at  the  New  Orleans  Exposition,  and  the 
skill  it  betrayed,  I  harbored  a  lurking  doubt  as  to  its  genu- 
ineness, and  an  apprehension  of  sham.  At  least  I  suspected 
that  the  splendid  apparatus,  contrivances,  and  devices  for 
objective  teaching,  exhibited  there,  were  the  results  of  a  few 
advanced  schools  only,  so  to  speak  ;  of  a  few  bright  educa- 
tional lights.  The  brighter  the  light,  the  darker  the  shadow. 
On  my  tour  through  northeastern  France  I  was  determined 
to  set  my  mind  at  rest  with  regard  to  this. 

Undoubtedly  in  Paris  the  schools  are  doing  fine  work, 
but  Paris  is  not  France.  I  am  now  prepared  to  say  that  my 
doubt  was  justified,  and  that  the  majority  of  schools  in 
France  are  nmch  inferior  to  the  average  of  our  city  schools 


382  rUOM  OTHER  FRENCH  CITIES. 

in  America.  Yet,  at  every  place  where  I  stopped,  and  in 
every  school  I  visited,  I  found  a  strong  onward  movement. 
The  heroic  efforts  of  the  lamented  Minister  of  Education,  M. 
Paul  Bert,  and  those  of  his  less  famous  but  equally  active 
successors,  are  beginning  to  be  felt  everywhere.  The  dead- 
ening influence  of  the  monks  and  nuns  in  school  has  ceased, 
only  lay -teachers  being  now  allowed  to  teach. 

It  is  only  a  few  years  since  this  new  order  has  gone  into 
effect,  and  one  can  not  stamp  and  thereby  raise  an  army  of 
well-equipped  teachers  from  the  ground.  But  already  one 
can  see  the  beneficial  influence  of  the  act  which  separated 
church  and  school  in  France.  Many  are  the  indications 
which  tend  to  prove  the  progressive  spirit  that  has  entered 
the  French  school,  but  I  can  not  enumerate  them  here  for 
want  of  space.  One  instance  may  suffice,  one  which  will  be 
found  characteristically  French. 

Let  me  tell  what  I  saw  in  a  convent  school  that  had  been 
changed  into  a  city  school.  The  city  authorities — either  the 
council  or  the  school  authorities — when  assuming  control 
over  the  school,  ordered  the  walls  of  the  class-rooms  to  be 
decorated  with  fresco-paintings.  That  order  was  carried  out 
regardless  of  cost.  It  is  a  charming  sight  to  see  these  walls 
beautifully  bedecked  with  exquisite  workmanship,  truly  ar- 
tistic allegorical  figures  in  glorious,  luminous  colors  !  It  was 
said,  when  the  matter  came  up  for  deliberation,  that  many 
pupils  never  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing  beautiful  rooms 
at  home,  living  in  squalid,  filthy  houses.  They  should  therc- 
fore  be  surrounded  by  beauty  in  rooms  where  they  were 
obliged  to  live  six  hours  every  day. 

I  mention  this  fact  because  it  is  freighted  with  the  sug- 
gestion to  imitate  it.  The  American  people,  perhaps  the 
richest  nation  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  can  well  afford  to 
surround  their  children — the  hope  of  the  future — with  things 
of  beauty,  which  are  "joys  forever."  Esthetic  education, 
however,  is  yet  in  its  infancy  in  America.  The  children 
need  to  see  beautiful  things  to  learn  to  appreciate  them. 
Much  is  done  with  us  by  beauty-loving  women  teachers,  who 


COMPOSITION-BOOKS  IN  FRENCH  SCHOOLS.         383 

succeed,  with  hardly  any  means  at  their  disposal,  in  deco- 
rating their  school-rooms  with  pictures,  flowers,  etc. ;  but  it 
should  be  preached  from  the*  house-tops  that  the  schools 
ought  to  be  perfect  treasuries  of  art  and  beauty.  Money 
spent  in  that  direction  is  never  thrown  away.  We  must 
accustom  our  children  to  beauty  and  make  beauty  infec- 
tious, just  as  Superintendent  Howland,  of  Chicago,  says  that 
the  good  should  be  made  contagious. 

2.  Composition-Books  in  French  Schools. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  French  people  have  a  trained 
eye  for  beauty.  All  the  patterns  of  their  machines  and 
other  contrivances,  even  the  boxes  in  which  they  pack  their 
goods,  are  ornamented  elaborately  and  artistically.  This 
highly  developed  sense  of  form  and  beauty  I  knew  was  due 
to  the  loving  care  which  French  teachers  bestow  upon  draw- 
ing and  sketching  in  school,  and  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
many  art-schools  maintained  by  the  state  and  by  com- 
munities. 

But  I  was  struck  with  wonder  when  I  went  through  a 

lyceum  at  E (a  high -school).     I  was  requested  to  look 

over  the  composition-books  of  the  pupils.  There  I  thought 
I  had  found  the  secret  spring  of  French  art — its  fountain- 
head. 

Each  composition  was  headed  by  a  pencil-sketch  drawn 
either  in  rude  outlines  or  beautifully  shaded.  Some  of  these 
illustrations  were  real  masterpieces  of  drawing,  representing 
landscape  scenery;  others  were  clumsy  delineations,  but  all 
comjwsitions  contained  at  least  some  attempt  at  illustration. 
(Compare  also  page  356.) 

Being  desirous  of  showing  my  readers  some  specimens, 
I  selected  a  few  composition- books  and  asked  for  their  loan 
with  a  view  to  copying  some  of  the  designs.  After  school  a 
delegation  of  students  called  at  the  hotel  and  brought  the 
books,  asking  whether  they  might  assist  me  in  copying.  I 
could  not  well  accept  their  services — though  politely  offered 
— ^and  traced  some  sketches  niyself.  Here  is  the  result : 
26 


384 


FROM   OTHER   FRENCH  CITIES. 


The  subject  of  one  of  the  compositions  was  "  The  Zones," 
and  this  was  the  sketch  accompanying  it.     (Fig.  448.) 


Flo.  448. 


Another  was  "  The  Digestive  Organs,"  and  the  liver,  here 
minutely  reproduced  as  I  found  it  sketched,  served  the  writer 
as  one  of  his  illustrations.     (Fig.  449.) 


Fig.  449. 


Fig.  450. 


The  third  composition  was  profusely  illustrated  with 
sketches  of  flowers.  I  copied  the  simplest,  to  show  the  ac- 
curacy of  representation.  One  glance  shows  what  flower 
it  is  (Fig.  450.) 


COMPOSITION-BOOKS  IN  FRENCH  SCHOOLS. 


385 


Fig.  451. 


A  fourth,  a^in  on  a  physiological  subject,  was  illus- 
trated with  sketches  of  bones  and  muscles.  This  is  one  of 
them.     (Fig.  451.) 

A  fifth  treated  of 
the  hviman  teeth,  and 
these  sketches  may  suf- 
fice to  prove  the  ar- 
tistic skill  of  the  boy. 
(Fig.  452.) 

I  will  refrain  from 
reflections  which  are 
crowding  my  mind 
with  regard  to  this 
practice,  but  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that 
the  subjects  of  all  the 
compositions  I  exam- 
ined were  taken  from 
the  studies  the  pupils 
then  pursued.  A  class 
studying  astronomy 
would  write  composi- 
tions on  astronomical 
subjects ;  a  class  in 
history  would  write  on 
historical  subjects,  and 
sketch  battle-fields  and 
maps,  chiefly  exhibiting  changes  in  boundaries  and  move- 
ments of  armies,  etc.    And  so  on,  ad  infinitum. 

It  is  worthy  of  our  notice  that  composition  thus  treated 
is  the  legitimate  offspring  of  the  day's  studies.  These  pupils 
can  not  complain  of  having  to  write  of  something  foreign 
to  their  comprehension  or  experience.  The  compositions 
they  furnish  are  summaries  of  what  they  learn  in  a  certain 
study,  and  such  composition-work  greatly  assists  the  reten- 
tion of  matter  in  the  memory. 

I  sincerely  hope  that  my  readers  will  give  this  a  little 


Fio.  452. 


386 


FROM  OTHER  FRENCH  CITIES. 


consideration.  The  practice  of  composing  in  pictures  as 
well  as  in  words  seems  eminently  suggestive  and  worthy 
of  imitation.  Don't  let  us  say,  "  What  good  can  come  from 
Nazareth  ? "  but  try  the  sketching,  and  see  whether  we  can 
not,  in  ten  or  twenty  years  from  now,  beat  the  French  in 
their  models  and  patterns.  The  Centennial  Exposition  in 
Philadelphia  has  opened  our  eyes,  as  it  did  those  of  the 
Germans.  To-day,  our  endeavors  in  art  are  vastly  better 
and  much  in  advance  of  those  previous  to  1876,  but  a  sys- 
tematic propagation  of  the  art  of  sketching  in  our  high- 
schools,  academies,  and  other  secondary  schools,  will  do 
wonders,  as  it  did  in  France  and  Germany. 

3.  More  Devices,  not  Methods. 

In  the  pretty,  picturesque  town  of  M -,  in  France,  about 

twenty  miles  southeast  of  Sedan,  I  visited  several  schools 
with  the  view  to  mining  them  for  treasures  of  methods  of 


Fig.  453. 


teaching  such  as  I  found  in  Germany  and  Holland ;  but  I 
was  very  much  disappointed  until  the  rector  who  took  me 
around  was  called  away.     Being  left  to  myself,  I  began  to 


MORE  DEVICES,  NOT  METHODS. 


387 


search  without  help,  and,  chatting  more  at  ease  with  the 
teachers,  I  unearthed  a  few  things  worthy  of  notice.  The 
most  practical  thing  was  a  set  of  pigeon-holes  called  a  "  nu- 
meration-box."   Here  is  a  sketch  of  it  (Fig.  453). 

Each  compartment  was  large  enough  to  hold  nine  little 
blocks  of  uniform  size — only  nine,  not  ten,  as  one  would 
naturally  suppose  when  speaking  of  numeration  and  nota- 
tion. I  inquired  why  not  ten,  and  was  told  that  just  so  soon 
as  ten  xinits  were  completed  they  were  exchanged  for  a  dif- 
ferent-colored block  which  stood  for  one  of  the  next  higher  or- 
der and  was  placed  in  the  second  compartment.  Numeration, 
addition,  and  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division,  were 
practiced  by  means  of  this  device,  of  course  with  rather  lim- 
ited numbers. 

The  same  idea,  illustrated  by  a  similar  home-made  con- 
trivance, I  had  met  in  the  Female  College  of  Dr.  S.  Lander, 


-r-f- 


Ol  'OOCJOOOvui/ v^'viJC-J 


o  ooo  oooa 


Fig.  454. 


in  Williamston,  S.  C.  He  had  invented  it,  and  you  can  im- 
agine my  astonishment  when  here  in  France  I  found  it  in 
general  use.  The  idea  of  giving  room  for  only  nine  units 
of  each  order  in  each  compartment  certainly  is  the  same, 
whatever  differences  there  may  exist  in  the  shape  of  the  de- 
vices in  France  and  South  Carolina. 

One  would  naturally  suppose  that  room  for  ten  units 
should  be  provided  for  as  I  did  in  ray  "  numeration  board," 
explained  in  "Chips  from  a  Teacher's  Workshop."  (Fig. 
454). 


388         FROM  OTHER  FRSNCn  CITIES. 

There  will  perhaps  always  be  an  honest  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  whether  nine  or  ten  units  of  each  order  should 
be  provided  for.  So  much,  however,  is  clear  to  my  mind, 
that  the  fact  of  the  blocks  being  of  uniform  size  confuses 
the  child,  who  can  not  see  that  the  mere  placing  a  block  in 
the  second  compartment  should  raise  its  intrinsic  value  ; 
and  if  it  is  not  to  be  thus  understood,  the  whole  device  is 
valueless. 

I  understand  that  a  digit  being  placed  or  moved  to  the 
left  should  change  its  value.  A  6  in  the  second  place  is  the 
same  kind  of  a  6  used  in  the  unit's  place ;  but  it  will  not  do 
to  make  symbols  of  the  objects.  While  on  the  numeration 
board  ten  pencils  fastened  together  make  a  bundle  of  ten  or 
one  unit  of  the  ten's  column,  the  numeration-box  does  not 
permit  the  fact  to  be  illustrated.  It  only  symbolizes  the 
fact,  and  that  at  the  very  moment  when  the  fact  itself 
should  impress  itself  upon  the  child's  mind. 

I  discussed  this  question  with  the  French  teacher,  who 
grew  quite  eloquent  on  the  matter — much  more  eloquent 
(and  vehement,  too)  than  the  cool  and  level-headed  genuine 
American,  Dr.  Lander,  could  ever  be.  Neither  gentleman 
convinced  me,  perhaps  owing  to  my  obtuseness,  and  we 
agreed  to  disagree.  By  placing  the  two  contrivances  before 
my  readers,  I  am  prepared  to  rest  the  case  and  to  submit  it 
to  the  decision  of  the  jury. 

4.  Also  a  Device,  but  oh! 

Noticing  a  queer  -  looking,  rubber,  hose-like  apparatus 
hanging  in  easy  reach  of  a  teacher  in  a  French  school,  I  in- 
quired after  its  use,  and  was  shocked  to  hear  that  this  instru- 
ment was  employed  in  flogging  bad  boys.  "  Why  don't  you 
use  an  old-fashioned  switch  or  elastic  cane  ? "  I  asked  ;  and 
with  a  cunning  wink  and  a  look  of  deep  comprehension  of 
all  the  bearings  of  the  case,  the  teacher  said,  in  subdued  tone, 
"  This  stings  better,  clings  to  the  body,  and  leaves  no  welts 
or  discolored  marks."  Of  course,  this  led  us  into  a  conver- 
sation on  corporal  punishment,  which  revealed  the  fact  that 


IGNORANCE  AND   CHAUVINISM.  389 

we  barbarians  at  home  are  better  than  these  highly  civilized, 
people,  who  with  all  their  varnish  of  artistic  culture  are  ig- 
norant of  the  true  dignity  of  the  human  being  which  should 
be  respected  even  in  the  child. 

5.  Ignorance  and  Chauvinism  of  French  Teachers. 

Several  amusing  incidents  occurred  during  my  visits  in 

French  schools.     In  N a  teacher  (a  monk)  asked  me, 

when  I  was  introduced  to  him  as  coming  from  Ohio,  whether 
I  had  come  overland  or  by  way  of  Panama.  Perhaps  he  mis- 
took Oregon  for  Ohio.  Another  claimed  that  "  the  French 
language  was  the  ruling  language  in  Louisiana  and  other 
States  (sic)  which  were  originally  settled  by  the  French." 
That  we  in  Ohio  need  not  necessarily  daily  dread  the  loss  of 
our  scalps,  being  in  such  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
wild  Indians  (as  they  believe),  is  a  thing  impossible  to  make 
them  see. 

The  worst  case  of  "  mistaken  identity  "  I  ever  met  with 
in  a  school-teacher  I  found  in  a  French  school,  where  the 
teacher  taught  a  middle  grade,  something  like  the  sixth 
school  year,  I  should  judge.  It  was  a  geography-lesson  I 
heard,  and  America  was  the  topic  of  the  day.  The  teacher, 
without  blushing — on  the  contrary,  with  the  chest  tone  of 
conviction  and  the  gestures  of  a  stump-speaker — told  his 
class  that  the  United  States  were  founded  by  men  who  were 
nurtured  by  the  grand  and  lofty  ideas  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, which  great  event  had  actually  changed  not  only  the 
European  modes  of  government,  but  those  of  America  also. 
During  the  short  recess  which  followed,  my  patriotism  got 
the  better  of  me,  and  I  asked  him  for  the  date  of  the  French 
Revolution,  which  he  gave  correctly,  to  wit,  1789.  Then  I 
asked  him  for  the  date  of  our  national  birthday,  and  his  an- 
swer Avas  a  blank  stare.  I  quietly  told  him  it  was  1776.  I 
will  do  the  man  justice,  though.  He  blushed  like  a  girl  of 
sixteen,  remembering  the  vainglorious  statement  he  had 
made  to  the  class  in  my  presence. 


390  FROM  OTHER  FRENCH  CITIES. 

6.  Molding  Maps. 

Interesting  was  a  lesson  in  molding  I  saw  in  France  in  a 
class  of  young  children  studying  geography.  Nothing  but 
putty  and  a  small  board  of  hard,  polished  wood  was  used. 
And  thus  the  teacher  proceeded : 

"  Children,  spread  out  the  putty  evenly,  as  you  see  me 
do  it.  Now,  when  you  see  land  level  like  this,  without 
hills  and  valleys,  we  call  it  a  plain.  Do  we  live  on  a  plain  ? 
No,  we  do  not.  Over  yonder  is  a  pretty  big  hill.  Now,  let 
us  make  a  hill  on  the  right  side  of  the  molding-board.  'Tis 
done.  But,  Charles,  your  hill  is  too  steep ;  no  person  could 
climb  it.  Look  through  the  window  at  the  hill  there.  Is 
that  as  steep  as  your  hill  ?  Now  suppose  the  hill  was  very 
high,  so  high  that  it  reached  into  the  clouds,  what  would  we 
call  it  ?  A  mountain,  assuredly,  a  mountain.  Just  think, 
there  is  a  mountain  in  la  belle  France,  the  top  of  which  is 
always  covered  with  ice  and  snow ;  it  is  more  than  15,000 
feet  high."  (The  actor — pardon,  the  teacher — did  not  give 
the  height  in  metres;  perhaps  he  thought  "15,000  feet" 
would  make  a  deeper  impression.  Everything  for  effect  !) 
"  Now  suppose  that  another  hill  is  on  the  other  side.  Make 
one.  Make  it  higher  than  your  first  hill.  Very  well,  in- 
deed !  What  is  that  low  place  between  the  hills  called  ? 
Oh,  yes ;  a  valley.  But  if  the  hills  were  very  near  together, 
and  the  valley  very  steep,  would  you  call  it  a  valley  ?  No  ? 
Quite  right;  we  would  call  it  a  gully,  or  ravine." 

Then  he  let  the  pupils  see  that  water  seeks  its  level  by 
pouring  water  from  the  top  of  his  hill  of  putty.  It  filled 
the  ravine  and  formed  a  river.  Now  rivers,  lakes,  water- 
sheds, and  sundry  topics  were  mentioned,  cities  were  located, 
and  soon  the  lesson  was  brought  to  a  close.  It  was  as  good 
as  going  to  the  theatre  to  hear  this  excitable  man  talk  and 
see  his  gestures.  The  pupils,  of  course,  were  like  so  many 
globules  of  mercury.  Moral. — A  sedate,  calm,  self-possessed 
teacher  has  quiet  pupils ;  an  excited  teacher  unruly  pupils, 
and  not  only  in  France,  but  all  the  world  over. 


"AD  OCULOS"  EVIDENCE. 


391 


7.  *'Ad  OcuLos"  Evidence.  • 

As  to  the  work  done  in  French,  schools,  it  remains  for- 
ever true  that  that  depends  entirely  and  exclusively  upon 
the  teacher.  A  good  teacher  is  very  conspicuous  here, 
though,  being  a  rara  avis. 

A  little  incident  amused  me  greatly  when  attending  a 
class  which  wrestled  with  the  rudiments  of  geometry.  A 
very  active  and  demonstrative  French  teacher,  and  evi- 
dently a  successful  one,  proved  to  his  class  that  the  sum  of 
the  three  angles  of  any  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  angles. 
And  he  did  it  by  first  cutting  a  triangle  out  of  a  sheet  of 
pasteboard ;  then  drawing  a  straight  line  on  the  blackboard, 
he  laid  one  side  of  the  triangle  on  the  line  and  drew  the 
angle  a.  Then  he  placed  angle  b  side  by  side  with  angle  a, 
and  of  course  angle  c  completed  the  space  above  the  straight 
line.  That  there  are  two  right  angles  on  a  straight  line  was 
known  from  the  definition  of  right  angles. 


Fig.  455. 

It  was  a  demonstration  ad  oculo.%  though  not  new  to  me, 

ha\dng  seen  it  used  by  Dr.  R ,  of  New  York.    The  amusing 

part  of  it  was,  that  it  was  "  performed  "  by  a  French  teacher 
who  was  a  bom  actor,  and  it  afforded  a  rare  sight,  equaled, 
perhaps,  only  by  Prof.  Sauveur's  inimitable  movements 
when  he  intends  to  indicate  a  French  word,  but  does  not  want 
to  translate  it  into  English.  This  same  French  teacher  caused 
his  pupils  to  make  of  pasteboard  most  of  the  geometrical 
bodies  used  in  the  class.  The  well-developed  sense  of  form 
of  the  boys  was  proved  by  the  faultless  specimens  exhibited. 
However,  that  feature  of  school-work  I  had  seen  so  often 
in  German  schools  that  it  did  not  interest  me  any  longer. 


392  VIENNA. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

VIENNA. 

1.  A  Successful  and  an  Unsuccessful  Lesson. 

In  a  people's  school  in  Vienna  I  chanced  to  hear  a  lesson 
on  metals.  Iron,  lead,  copper,  silver,  and  gold  were  discussed, 
and  numerous  specimens  handed  around,  rather  to  illustrate 
the  lesson,  as  I  thought,  than  to  aid  the  comprehension  of 
the  subject-matter.  The  teacher  lectured,  only  throwing  in 
a  question  now  and  then,  like,  "  Is  it  not  so  ?  Don't  you 
think  so  too  ? "  A  handsome  reference  was  made  to  a  prov- 
erb and  that  was  applied  in  a  new  way.  ^  A  dim  specimen  of 
gold  quartz  gave  occasion  to  quote  the  wise  saw,  "  Not  all 
is  gold  that  glitters,"  and  then  amend  it  by  adding,  "  Neither 
does  everything  glitter  that  is  gold."  One  feature  of  the 
lesson  struck  me  as  worthy  of  mention.  When  the  weight 
of  different  metals  was  spoken  of,  it  was  difficult  to  convince 
the  pupils  that  gold  is  heavier  than  copper.  But  the  teacher 
showed  an  Austrian  copper  kreutzer  (worth  one  cent)  and  a 
German  golden  ten-mark  piece  (worth  $2.50).  Both  coins 
are  of  the  same  size  and  thickness.  He  laid  the  two  on  the 
scale,  and  thus  proved  that  gold  outweighs  copper.  No  bet- 
ter ad  oculos  proof  could  be  brought. 

When  the  methods  of  obtaining  gold  from  mines  were 
touched,  the  digging  and  washing  were  first  mentioned, 
then  the  crushing  of  ore;  and  thus  the  teacher  lectured: 
"  The  quartz  is  brought  up  from  the  mine  "  (a  specimen  was 
handed  arouiid);  "it  is  laid  under  a  heavy  iron  column 
which  vibrates  up  and  down,  and  with  its  tremendous  weight 
crushes  the  ore,  so  that  it  becomes  fine  sand.  The  little  gold 
leaves  that  adhered  to  the  mineral  are  thus  loosened.  The 
column  is  worked  up  and  down  by  cog-wheels,  as  this  sketch 
shows."  (Teacher  drew  the  figure  on  the  board.)  "  Now  the 
question  arises,  How  to  separate  the  gold  from  the  sand  ? 
It  is  done  by  giving  the  gold  a  friend  that  takes  hold  of  it, 


A  SUCCESSFUL  AND  AN  UNSUCCESSFUL  LESSON.    393 


namely,  quicksilver."  (Specimen  is  shown,  and  its  affinity 
for  gold  proved.)  "  This  imites  with  the  gold  and  gathers 
up  all  the  small  particles  loosened  from  the  mineral. 

"  Now  the  gold  is  severed  from  the  mineral,  but  the  next 
question  arises.  How  to  sep- 
arate the  quicksilver  from 
the  gold  ?  This  is  done  by 
letting  the  quicksilver  evap- 
orate in  a  furnace.  The 
gold  remains  in  the  bottom 
of  the  crucible.  Thus  the 
gold  is  set  free  from  useless 
matter."  The  manner  in 
which  the  teacher  presented 
facts  might  have  been  very 
interesting  to  older  pupils, 
and  on  the  surface  the  les- 
son appeared  a  highly  suc- 
cessful one.  But,  while  I 
must  admit  that  the  pupils 
followed  him  in  his  "  lect- 
ure" very  attentively,  I 
doubt  whether  their  being 
left  mere"  passive  recipients 
of  knowledge  insured  the 
success  which  he  expected. 

In  another  grade  of  a 
similar  school  I  witnessed  a 
lesson  in  physics  which  on 
the  surface  appeared  a  most 
unsuccessful  one.  Magnet- 
ism and  electricity  was  the 

subject.  The  experiments  performed  miscarried  in  many 
instances,  because  the  pupils  who  performed  them  did  not 
employ  that  care  and  circumspection  which  is  so  necessary 
with  apparatus  for  illustrating  this  subject.  But  the  teacher 
made  his  pupils  work  out  every  problem,  think  out  every 


Fig.  456. 


394  VIENNA. 

conclusion,  and  be  as  self-active  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge 
as  they  could  be.  He  never  made  a  positive  statement,  never 
announced  a  result  himself,  but  allowed  and  even  begged  the 
pupils  to  do  that  for  him,  "  to  help  him  a  little,"  as  he  craftily 
termed  it. 

One  experiment  failed  also  under  the  skillful  hands  of 
the  teacher,  and,  when  he  appeared  much  worried  (not  that 
he  was  so,  but  he  wanted  to  appear  so),  he  said :  "  I  want  to 
prove  this  and  that,  and  my  experiment  has  failed;  what 
can  be  the  reason  ? "  Suggestions  were  made  by  the  pupils, 
and  each  was  tested,  until  some  one's  suggestion  proved  to  be 
right,  namely,  that  the  glass  rod  had  not  been  rubbed  suffi- 
ciently to  cause  electricity  which  could  be  noticed.  Thus, 
with  laudable  perseverance  of  both  teacher  and  pupils,  the 
desired  effect  was  produced,  and  was  the  more  gratifying, 
inasmuch  as  the  cause  of  the  failure  had  been  discovered 
without  aid. 

The  pupils'  sympathy  with  the  teacher's  feigned  discom- 
fort, when  his  experiment  failed,  was  touching  to  behold, 
and  one  said,  "We  believe  your  statement  without  seeing 
the  experiment."  But  he  replied :  "  No,  children,  though  I 
heartily  thank  you  for  your  confidence,  I  can  not  rest  sat- 
isfied; you  must  see  it  to  remember  it."  With  rare  circum- 
spection the  teacher  kept  order,  looked  after  the  language 
of  his  pupils,  reviewed  from  time  to  time  to  keep  the  whole 
train  of  causes  and  effects  vividly  before  the  class  ;  he 
animated  the  class  to  ever-new  efforts,  and,  while  seeming 
to  be  a  "  side-show,"  he  really  was  a  motive  power  of  rare 
effect. 

Is  it  necessary  to  state  which  of  the  two  lessons  was  the 
successful  and  which  the  unsuccessful  one  ? 

2.  An  Object-Lesson  in  the  Primary  Grade. 

It  was  in  the  practice-school  of  the  classic  "Paedago- 
gium  "  in  Vienna  (Dr.  Fr.  Dittes  was  rector  of  the  institution 
for  many  years),  that  I  heard  a  lesson  in  arithmetic  ac- 
cording to  Grrube.     The  children  were  just  climbing  from  10 


AN  OBJECT-LESSON  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADE.      395 

to  20  in  numbers,  and  solved  such  examples  as  8+6,  9  +  8, 
7+5,  etc.  Every  example  was  solved  by  doing  (that  is,  per- 
forming it  with  match-sticks  and  other  objects)  and  thinking. 
At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  all  "  helps  "  were  laid  aside,  and 
examples  were  solved  orally  alone.  The  subject  is  too  well 
known  to  sketch  this  beautiful  lesson. 

Then  followed  a  language-lesson,  which  had  for  its  sub- 
ject "The  Winter."  A  large  picture  (published  by  Eduard 
Hoelzel,  in  Vienna)  was  used.  It  is  a  magnificent  winter 
landscape.  In  the  background  was  seen  a  city,  with  smoke- 
stacks, church-steeples,  etc.  On  the  left,  a  road  with  a  black- 
smith's shop ;  on  the  right,  a  pond  on  which  children  skated ; 
in  the  foreground,  a  coasting-slide  and  a  group  of  children 
making  a  snow-man,  were  seen.  The  picture  offered  sev- 
eral other  interesting  scenes,  such  as  cutting  ice  on  the  pond, 
sleighing,  shoveling  snow,  etc.  High  up,  in  the  gray,  win- 
try air  were  seen  crows.  The  hill-sides,  roads,  roofs,  trees, 
and  bushes  were  covered  with  snow.  This  picture  is 
quite  large  and  can  be  folded  together.  It  belongs  to  a 
series  of  fovir  pictures  (mounted  on  muslin)  representing 
the  four  seasons.  I  found  these  lovely  pictures  in  many 
primary  schools  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  they  are  even 
more  frequently  provided  in  England  than  in  Germany 
and  France. 

I  can  not  sketch  the  entire  lesson.  Only  one  episode  is 
vividly  imprinted  on  my  memory.  I  will  endeavor  to  re- 
produce it,  for  it  is  a  proof  of  how  consistently  little  children 
of  six  years  can  "  reason  out  things,"  and  how  well  they  talk 
when  they  have  something  to  say : 

Teacher.  "  What  kind  of  a  bird  is  this  ? " 

Pupil.  "A  crow." 

Teacher.  "  What  do  you  notice  on  the  snow  around  the 
bird?" 

Pupil.  "Many  of  the  crow's  footprin,ts." 

Teacher.  "  What  do  they  tell  you  ? " 

Pupil.  "  That  the  bird  must  have  hopped  about  there." 

Teacher.  "  What  may  it  want  there  ? " 


396  VIENNA. 

Pupil.  "  It  is  looking  for  food ;  it  may  be  hun^.^y." 

Teacher.  "  Is  the  crow  a  shy  bird,  or  as  free  and  easy  as 
a  sparrow  ? " 

Pupil.  "  I  think  it  is  a  very  shy  bird." 

Teacher.  "  Where  does  it  build  its  nest  ? " 

Pupil.  "  High  up  in  the  trees  of  the  woods,  far  away 
from  houses. " 

Teacher.  "  What,  then,  may  be  the  reason  of  its  coming 
so  near  to  the  blacksmith's  shop,  where  boys  are  playing  and 
dogs  are  kept  ?  " 

Pupil.  "  Because  it  is  likely  to  find  food  near  a  shop  like 
that." 

Teacher.  "  Yes,  but,  if  it  is  so  shy  a  bird  as  you  say  it  is, 
I  should  think  it  would  not  dare  to  come  so  near  men  and 
their  houses  ? " 

Pupil.  "  Well,  I  think  it  wouldn't  if  it  could  find  any 
food  in  the  fields.  But  don't  you  see  the  fields  are  cov- 
ered with  deep  snow  !  how  will  a  poor  crow  get  food 
there  ?  So  it  comes  near  the  blacksmith's  shop.  It  is  very 
hungry,  and  I  think  those  crows  high  up  in  the  air  have 
sent  this  one  down  to  see  whether  there  is  any  food  to  be 
found.  If  they  get  a  chance,  they  will  come,  too,  and  get 
some." 

Teacher.  "  Yes,  dear,  that's  very  well  said.  I  think  that 
must  be  it." 

The  language  of  the  school-children  in  Vienna  is  very 
good.  The  absence  of  those  detestable  dialects  found  near 
the  Rhine,  in  Berlin,  in  Bavaria,  and  especially  in  Switzer- 
land, makes  teaching  in  Vienna  delightful.  Aside  from  the 
word  "  halt,"  used  perhaps  too  frequently,  the  German  of  the 
people  in  Vienna  is  very  good. 

3.  A  Lesson  in  Grammar. 

A  very  instructive  lesson,  illustrating  the  "  constructive 
method  "  in  grammar,  was  given  in  my  presence  in  Vienna. 
The  subject  of  the  lesson  was  the  use  of  prepositions  requir- 
ing the  "genitive  case."     The  so-called  adverbial  preposi- 


A  LESSON  m  GRAMMAR  397 

tions  instead  of,  for  the  sake  of,  without  or  outside,  within 
or  inside,  in  virtue  of,  according  to,  in  spite  of,  on  account 
of,  for  the  sake  of,  notwithstanding,  in  consequence  of,  in 
behalf  of,  in  presence  of,  in  the  midst  of,  and  numerous 
others,  were  placed  on  the  board,  and  it  was  required  to  in- 
troduce or  apply  them  in  sentences  all  of  which  stood  in 
connection  and  formed  a  composition.  Since  the  children 
of  Vienna,  as  a  rule,  speak  the  German  language  singularly 
free  from  grammatical  errors,  the  cases  dependent  upon 
prepositions  make  little  difficulty.  While  children  in  other 
parts  of  Germany  avoid  a  noun  in  the  genitive  case  and  sub- 
stitute the  nominative  or  the  preposition  of  (von)  the  chil- 
dren in  Vienna  say  correctly,  for  instance,  "  Des  Wetters 
wegen,^^  "  In  Gegenwart  des  Lehrers,''^  "  Diesseits  des  Fluss- 
es,"  etc. 

The  work  I  saw  was  class- work,  and  all  tbe  pupils  worked 
to  make  a  readable  composition.  The  above-mentioned 
prepositional  phrases,  together  with  simpler  prepositions, 
such  as  above,  below,  along,  were  used,  and  the  result  was  a 
very  pretty  description  of  the  city  of  Gratz.  When  this  was 
finished,  the  prepositions  were  underscored,  and  the  nouns 
dependent  upon  them  marked.  It  was  a  most  interesting 
lesson,  which  proved  that  grammar  may  be  learned  by  doing 
better  than  by  learning  it  by  heart  verbatim  et  literatim. 
But  the  best  part  of  the  lesson  followed  when  the  teacher 
suggested  to  the  pupils  that  they  might  make  similar  com- 
positions. The  result  of  this  work  was  very  gratifying. 
One  of  the  compositions  was  a  description  of  "A  Pretty 
Spot,"  somewhat  like  the  one  in  my  "  German  by  Practice," 
which  is  reproduced  here. 

The  reader  who  has  not  studied  German  grammar  will 
perhaps  object  to  the  use  of  the  term  "  prepositional  phrases  " 
as  used  above ;  but  it  is  really  the  most  convenient  name  for 
such  expressions.  I  reproduce  also  a  little  narrative  which 
was  used  to  illustrate  the  use  of  prepositions  governing  both 
the  dative  and  accusative  case.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  children  find  more  pleasure  in  thus  practically  learning 


398  VIENNA. 

grammar  than  in  first  learning  rules  by  heart  and  then 
applying  them. 

*'  A  Prelty  Spot. — Not  far  from  our  house  stands  a  pretty  grove. 
People  from  the  city  often  come  to  have  a  picnic  in  it  during  the  hot 
season.  Above  a  mighty  rock  in  the  middle  of  the  grove  a  spring  bubbles 
forth.  Its  water  flows  along  within  a  narrow  bed  between  flowery  banks. 
This  side  of  the  brooklet  a  foot-path  leads  toward  the  mill-dam.  Below 
the  latter  stands  an  old  mill  leaning  against  the  rocks.  A  narrow  bridge 
without  a  railing  leads  across  the  brook,  and  on  tlie  other  side  of  it  a 
shady  arbor  invites  the  weary  wanderer  to  take  a  rest.  Inside  of  the  old 
building  the  mill  clatters  lively,  and  outside  of  it  the  great  mill-wheel 
turns  slowly.  Despite  its  slow  course,  it  sets  the  whole  machinery  in 
motion.  The  splashing  water  and  the  shade-trees  cause  a  pleasant  cool- 
ness, even  duHnr/  the  hottest  season.  I  like  to  sit  here  with  my  books 
on  account  of  the  beautiful  scenery  before  me." 

"  The  Light  of  the  Faithful  Sister. — Many  years  ago  there  lived  a  girl 
in  a  lonely  fisherman's  hut  on  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea.  Father  and 
mother  were  dead,  and  her  brother  was  far  out  on  the  sea.  With  a  long- 
ing heart  she  remembered  the  dead,  and  waited  patiently  for  the  return 
of  the  absent  brother.  When  the  brother  went  to  sea,  she  had  prom- 
ised him  that  she  would  place  a  light  in  the  window  every  night.  The 
light  would  shine  far  over  the  sea,  and  it  was  to  tell  him  that  his  sister 
Elke  was  still  alive,  and  waiting  for  him.  She  faithfully  kept  her  prom- 
ise. Every  evening  she  placed  her  lamp  near  the  window,  and  many  an 
hour  in  the  daytime  was  spent  by  her  in  looking  out  on  the  waves  and 
passing  vessels.  Whenever  a  ship  hove  in  sight,  she  hoped  it  would  bring 
her  dearly  beloved  brother  back  to  her.  Months  passed,  years  passed, 
but  the  brother  did  not  return.  Perhaps  he  was  shipwrecked.  Elke 
grew  old  and  gray,  but,  still  faithful  to  her  pledge,  she  often  sat  near 
the  window  of  her  lonely  hut,  gazing  out  upon  the  sea,  and  not  an  even- 
ing  passed  on  which  she  did  not  place  on  the  window-sill  a  lamp  well 
provided  with  oil.  Thus  she  waited  and  waited  ;  she  waited  fifty  years. 
One  night  the  light  went  out ;  her  window  remained  dark.  The  neighbors 
saw  it  from  afar  and  cried,  "  Ah,  at  last,  Elke's  brother  has  come ! " 
They  hurried  to  her  hut  to  welcome  him  home.  When  they  opened  the 
door  they  found  old  Elke  dead  and  stiff,  still  leaning  toward  the  window, 
as  though  still  gazing  out  on  the  troubled  waves.  Beside  her  stood  the 
lamp,  the  light  of  which  had  gone  out." 


MANUAL  TRAINING-SCHOOLS  IN  VIENNA.  399 

4.  Manual  Traening-Schools  m  Vienna. 

Introduction. — It  is  difficult  to  decide  wliich  of  the  two 
cities — Vienna  or  Leipsic — accomplishes  most  in  manual 
training'.  In  Leipsic  the  efforts  are  more  concentrated ;  in 
Vienna  they  are  spread  over  the  difPerent  parts  of  the  city, 
and  I  believe  in  due  coui-se  of  time  this  wise  policy  will  re- 
sult in  popularizing  the  work  sufficiently  to  call  for  its  in- 
troduction into  the  common  schools.  At  present  (March, 
1888)  manual  training  is  not  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  the 
common  schools,  though  all  the  manual  training-schools  are 
held  in  public-school  houses.  The  work  is  done  after  school 
hours ;  but  the  popularity  which  manual  occupation  has  ob- 
tained among  pupils,  teachers,  and  school  authorities  in 
Vienna  bids  fair  to  predict  an  early  introduction  of  manual 
training  into  the  daily  programme. 

The  manual  training  normal  school  in  Vienna  is  rapidly 
increasing  the  nximber  of  instructor  who  can  teach  the  occu- 
pations rationally  and  methodically,  and  teachers  who  have 
a  professional  preparation  are  considered  the  conditio  sine 
qua  non  in  Austria  as  well  as  in  Germany.  I  am  aware  of 
the  stubborn  fact  that  the  average  American  school  official 
argues  differently.  Professional  training  is  not  so  much  in 
demand  here  as  in  Europe.  The  question  whether  a  nor- 
mal-school graduate  or  a  college  gi*aduate  is  the  better  pre- 
pared teacher  is  still  a  mooted  question  with  us.  "We  are 
very  apt  to  shirk  responsibility  by  introducing  new  methods 
without  the  wherewithal  to  maintain  them.  Singing,  draw- 
ing, objective  teaching.  Kindergarten  occupations,  and  other 
things,  were  introduced  without  much,  if  any,  preparation 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  The  result  has  been,  as  Dr.  Hail- 
mann  has  so  convincingly  shown,  that  they  were  seized  by 
"  the  machine."  I  am  very  much  af i"aid  that  manual  training 
"wUl  have  a  similar  fate,  because  not  a  sufficient  number  of  in- 
structors can  be  had  in  America  to  teach  the  work  to  justify 
so  broad  and  general  an  introduction  as  recently  took  place 
in  New  York.  Still,  I  shall  be  ha])py  to  find  that  1  have  been 
27 


400  VIENNA. 

mistaken ;  and,  if  this  book  contributes  its  mite  toward  help- 
ing manual  training  along,  it  will  find  in  that  its  best 
reward. 

Mr.  Alois  Bruhns,  the  rector  of  one  of  the  manual  train- 
ing-schools, has  published  a  hand-book  which  is  used  exclu- 
sively in  Vienna.  The  sketches  of  pupils'  work  on  the  fol- 
lowing pages  are  selected  from  this  hand-book  ;  but  before  I 
selected  them  I  convinced  myself  that  they  were  copies  of 
pupils'  efforts.  I  found  the  boys  at  work  at  them,  and  what 
they  accomplished  agreed  exactly  with  the  drawings  I  here 
submit. 

They  are  typical  selections,  and  are  here  inserted  to 
show: 

1.  That  the  occupations  of  the  boys  are  more  like  those 
in  Leipsic  than  those  in  Paris.  The  boys  produce  articles  of 
utility,  and  not  merely  exercises  for  the  purpose  of  learning 
the  use  of  hands  and  tools. 

2.  That,  like  the  work  in  Leipsic,  that  in  Vienna,  is  me- 
thodically arranged  and  well  graded. 

3.  That  in  wood-carving  and  modeling  they  accomplish 
more  than  in  Leipsic,  though  less  than  in  Paris, 

4.  That  they  confine  themselves  in  Vienna  to  pasteboard 
work,  joiner's  and  carpenter's  work,  wood  -  carving,  and 
modeling,  and  that  they  have  not  introduced  metal- work  as 
yet. 

My  observations  in  the  Vienna  manual  training-schools 
lead  me  to  say  that  their  educational  influence  upon  the 
boys  is  far  greater  than  that  of  "  travail  manuel "  schools  in 
Paris,  because  the  teachers  are  specially  prepared  for  this 
kind  of  work  and  are  public-school  teachers,  while  the  in- 
structors of  the  "  travail  manuel "  schools  in  Paris  are  artisans 
who  pay  more  attention  to  the  technical  results  than  to  the 
educational  influence  which  the  work  may  have  upon  the 
pupils.  Nowhere  in  Germany  and  in  Vienna  did  I  find  any 
non-professional  teachers  at  work  in  manual  training-schools 
except  in  one  instance.  This  case  is  worth  mentioning.  In 
Leipsic  I  met  a  master-joiner  as  instructor  in  the  common 


MANUAL  TRAINING-SCHOOLS  IN  VIENNA. 


401 


school  who  sneered  at  American  tools,  saying  that  the  wav- 
ing handles  of  our  axes  and  other  "  so-called  "  improvements 
(sic)  were  useless ;  that  for  efPectiveness  he  wanted  straight- 
handled  German  tools,  etc.  In  justice  to  the  institution  I 
must  say  that  he  stood  alone  in  his  opinion  ;  all  others 
present — instructors  and  students — agreed  that  American 
tools  far  surpass  the  German  in  durability  and  usefulness. 


0.9        1.00  iU 


Fig.  457. 


National  pride  is  a  virtue,  but  it  becomes  a  vice  as  soon 
as  it  is  blind  to  the  excellent  progress  other  nations  are  mak- 
ing, and  effectually  prevents  the  individual  from  improving 
himself.  It  matters  not  whether  we  find  it  in  an  Austrian 
workman,  or  in  an  American  teacher  who  objects  to  "  Ger- 


402  VIENNA. 

man  inethoda  "  on  the  plea  that  this  is  America,  etc.  We  all 
know  the  song ;  and  we  know  the  author,  too. 

A  Work-bench. — The  reader  w^ill  find  in  the  following  il- 
lustrations some  attempts  at  "  doing  exercises,"  but  they  are 
not  by  far  as  numei-ous  here  as  in  Paris,  and  the  articles 
made  are,  indeed,  very  elaborate  affairs,  as  will  be  seen  by 
comparing  them  with  the  work  done  in  Paris.  Like  all  other 
schools  of  this  kind,  those  in  Vienna  insist  upon  drawing 
and  sketching.  No  article  is  made  which  the  pupil  has  not 
first  represented  in  lines  on  the  flat  surface  with  or  without 
shading.  Only  when  the  object  stands  clearly  before  his 
inner  eye  will  he  be  allowed  to  produce  it  in  paper  and  paste- 
board, in  wood,  clay,  or  plaster,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

In  Vienna  I  found  a  novel  and  rather  practical  work- 
bench made  of  old-fashioned  school-desks  and  seats.  This 
bench  enables  the  teacher  to  do  more  class-work  than  he  can 
do  where  single  work-benches  are  in  use.  I  copy  a  sketch 
of  this  bench,  since  it  may  give  some  of  my  readers  an  im- 
petus to  do  likewise  with  old,  discarded  double  desks  that 
drag  out  their  existence,  under  a  load  of  dust,  in  the  garret  or 
cellar  of  the  school-house.  Making  use  of  this  old  furniture 
may  considerably  decrease  the  cost  of  a  first  outfit  for  a  man- 
ual training-school  or  class  (Fig.  457). 

I.  Pupils'  Work. — A  few  samples  of  articles  made  of 
pasteboard  and  paper  may  show  the  variety  and  exactness 
of  the  work  done  in  the  Vienna  manual  training-schools 
(Figs.  458-465). 

II.  Pupils''  Wor^c. — A  few  samples  of  joiner's  work,  show- 
ing the  practical  bent  the  boys  get  in  the  Vienna  manual 
training-schools  (Figs.  466-476). 

III.  Pupils^  Work  in  joinery  and  carpentering  done  in 
the  Vienna  manual  training-schools  (Figs.  477-491). 

IV.  Pupils^  Work. — The  work  in  turning  is  not  by  far  as 
tedious  here  in  Vienna  as  I  found  it  in  Paris.  The  desire  to 
apply  the  skill  gained  by  making  articles  of  use  is  well  illus- 
trated by  the  few  typical  specimens  I  here  offer  (Figs. 
492-510). 


MANUAL  TRAINING-SCHOOLS  IN  VIENNA.  403 


Figs.  458-1' 


401 


VIENNA. 


V.  Pupils'  Work. — In  wood  -  carving'  the  work  is  also 
more  practical  in  Vienna  than  in  Paris.  Although  decora- 
tion is  the  chief  object  of  all  wood-carving,  it  is  easily  seen 


Figs.  466-4: 


MANUAL  TRAINING-SCHOOLS  IN  VIENNA.  405 


Figs.  477-491. 


406 


VIENNA. 


from  the  following  specimens  that  the  boys  will  labor  with 
more  pleasure  at  this  kind  of  work  than  at  doing  exercises 
exclusively  (Figs.  511-518). 


Figs.  49^510. 


MANUAL  TRAINING-SCHOOLS  IN  VIENNA. 


407 


VI.  Pupils'  Work. — Though  all  the  work  done  in  the 
manual  training-schools  in  Vienna  is  commendable  and 
even  praiseworthy,  the  best  is  that  in  modeling  in  clay  and 
casting  in  plaster.    Instead  of  many  specimens,  I  will  offer 


q 

li ^Jj 

D 

In     q_. 

-] 

n 

T  L— J    1 

5" 

FiQS.  511-518. 


408 


VIENNA. 


only  one  of  the  handsomest  figures  I  found  in  the  collection. 
It  will  speak  more  eloquently  than  I  can  do  it  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  form,  sense,  and  skill  of  the  hand  secured  by 
modeling.     I  had  frequently  seen  drawings  made  by  pupils 


Fig.  519. 


SIMPLICITY  IN  TEE  WRONG  PLACE.  409 

shaded  beautifully ;  but  here  I  saw  the  drawing-  executed  in 
clay  and  plaster  by  boys  about  fourteen  years  of  age.  Need- 
less to  say  that  I  admired  them,  and,  I  am  afraid,  showed  it. 
too  plainly  (Fig.  519). 


CHAPTER  XV. 

SWITZERLAND  AND  ALSACK 

1.  SraPLidTY  m  THE  Wrong  Place. 

Simplicity  in  manners  and  customs  is  a  proverbial  virtue 
in  the  citizen  of  a  republic  ever  since  the  time  of  Lycurgus ; 
and  Cincinnatus  and  Curius,  Fabricius  and  Fabius  are  noted 
examples  of  ancient  Eome  of  that  simplicity  and  civil  virtue 
which  seem  to  vanish  before  the  conquering  progress  of 
culture.  Without  being  conscious  of  it,  we  connect  in  our 
mind  simplicity  with  honesty,  and,  thoug-h  luxuriously  in- 
clined ourselves,  we  can  not  but  do  homage  to  a  true  example 
of  simplicity  when  we  meet  it.  I  went  to  Switzerland,  and 
there  found  what  I  never  expected  to  see — a  sample  of  sim- 
phcity  in  the  wrong  place,  a  misdirected  simplicity,  coupled 
with  a  miserly  economy  and  a  brutal  honesty — mark  the 
words ! 

The  Germans,  and  in  these  latter  days  the  French  also, 
consider  the  best  barely  good  enough  for  their  childi-en. 
They  are  therefore  always  on  the  alert  to  catch  what  im- 
provements are  offered  in  common-school  education.  I 
wiU  not  speak  of  material  things,  such  as  books,  etc.,  but 
will  confine  myself  to  the  world  of  ideas.  There  is  no  new 
idea  in  the  realm  of  education  that  they  do  not  instantly 
welcome ;  no  device  whose  usefvdness  they  will  not  test  with- 
out delay ;  no  method  that  they  will  not  at  once  apply  in 
some  experimental  station ;  no  principle  which  they  will  not 
quickly  seize  to  serve  them  as  a  subject  for  discussion ;  no 
branch  of  study  which  they  will  not  give  a  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  some  school. 


410  SWITZERLAND  AND   ALSACE. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  the  German  school  lives  in 
the  most  unrivaled  luxury  with  regard  to  ideas,  branches  of 
study,  text-books,  and  other  material  things.  Whether  the 
fact  that  it  is  equally  well  supplied  with  teaching  forces  is  the 
natural  consequence  of  ihe  imdying  aspiration  and  remark- 
able activity  of  the  German  school,  or  whether  the  latter  is 
the  result  of  the  fact  that  the  schools  are  manned  with  pro- 
fessional teachei-s,  is  a  question  of  no  importance  here ;  foi- 
Switzerland,  where  I  found  a  deplorable  absence  of  that 
luxury  referred  to,  has  also  a  profession  of  teaching. 

Having  spent  nearly  nine  months  in  France,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  I  came  to  Switzer- 
land fully  prepared  to  witness  in  the  land  of  Pestalozzi  a 
progress  in  the  schools  of  the  people  such  as  would  take  my 
breath  away ;  but  never  was  I  more  disappointed  than  when 
I  did  see  schools  in  Switzerland.  The  poverty,  or  let  me  say 
the  simplicity,  of  these  schools  in  aims,  in  methods,  and  in 
equipment  fairly  disgusted  me.  I  confined  my  observations 
to  "  people's  schools  " — that  is,  the  primary  schools,  which  in 
many  places  have  a  four  years'  course.  Spending  some  time 
in  many  classes  of  various  schools,  and  comparing  the  courses 
of  study  and  the  methods  applied,  I  gathered  a  fair  picture 
of  the  status  quo  of  the  Smss  pubhc  school  for  the  lower 
strata  of  society,  which  does  not  satisfy  me. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  defend  this  sweeping  assertion  in 
case  it  should  be  attacked,  I  provided  myself  with  the  printed 
courses  of  instruction,  the  manuals  used  by  the  teachers,  and 
some  samples  of  pupils'  work  which  were  offered  me  by  the 
teachers  as  excellent  specimens.  Judging  from  these  proofs 
in  black  and  white  and  from  ocular  evidence,  I  concluded 
that  the  proverbial  republican  simplicity  is  here  found  in  the 
wrong  place.  Since  education  in  Switzerland  is,  as  with  us, 
not  a  matter  of  legislation  of  the  Confederation,  but  of  each 
separate  canton,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  my  experi- 
ences are  exceptional  ones,  and  I  am  perfectly  willing  to 
offer  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  to  any  one  who  feels  unjustly 
treated  by  my  criticism. 


SIMPLICITY  IN  THE  WRONG  PLACE. 


411 


Let  me  proceed  to  state  in  what  way  I  met  with  the  "  sim- 
plicity" referred  to.  I  purposely  avoid  mentioning  the 
names  of  the  cities  I  visited.  The  results  in  drawing  are 
very  poor.  There  is  a  manual  for  instruction  in  drawing, 
in  use  in  one  of  the  larger  cities,  showing  the  work  to  be 
done  in  four  years.  This  course  is  primitive  to  a  fault.  It 
can  not  be  alleged  to  be  an  antiquated  document,  for  it  bears 
the  date  January,  1887.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
year,  after  three  years'  practice  on  slate  and  paper,  the  pu- 
pil's sense  of  form  is  still  fed  with  "  forms  "  like  these : 


Fig.  530. 


In  arithmetic  there  is  equally  little  progress  made.  In 
the  primer  grade  only  addition  and  subtraction  within 
tlie  compass  of  1  and  15  are  practiced.  In  the  second 
grade  the  children  learn  to  count  up  to  100  by  two's,  three's, 
etc.,  and  begin  multiplication  ;  at  the  close  of  the  second 
year,  easy  examples  in  division,  such  as  15  -i-  3  =  5.  In 
the  third  year  the  compass  is  widened  to  1,000,  but  each  of 
the  four  fundamental  rules  is  treated  separately.  No  Grube 
method,  or  indeed  any  approach  to  it  here.  Grade  four 
works  long  and  short  division  examples  in  abstract  numbers 
and  is  introduced  into  the  world  of  denominate  numbers. 
No  fractions!  And  when  by  rare  chance  an  expression, 
such  as  "  i  of  16,"  escapes  the  lips  of  the  teacher,  he  intends 
it  to  mean,  "Divide  16  by  3  and  tell  the  remainder."  I  in- 
quired very  anxiously  after  fractions,  and  was  told  that  there 
was  no  attempt  made  at  teaching  fractions  till  the  pupils  en- 
tered the  intermediate  grades.  Compare  with  this  mental 
poverty  what  I  observed  in  other  schools.  See,  for  instance, 
page  152,  "The  Augusta  School  in  Berlin." 

I  awaited  a  lesson  in  geography  anxiously,  to  see  whether 


412  SWITZERLAND   AND   ALSACE. 

in  that  branch  also  the  same  "  conservatism  "  was  exhibited. 
To  be  sure  it  was  I  The  geographical  horizon  of  the  pupils 
in  the  fourth  year  did  not  extend  beyond  the  little  landscape 
surrounding  the  city,  and  the  maps  made  by  the  pupils  of 
this  home  geography  were  the  rudest  possible.  I  was  re- 
quested to  look  them  over.  The  pride  of  the  teacher  over 
this  work  was  So  evident  that  I  asked  him  to  let  me  have  a 
few  to  show  my  friends  in  America.  The  request  flattered 
him,  and  he  selected  a  few  of  the  best,  which  I  am  ready  to 
exhibit  as  proofs  of  my  statement.  From  these  best  ones 
one  may  judge  of  the  worst. 

In  laiiguage  the  results  seemed  anything  but  satisfactory, 
the  teachers  having  to  contend  with  an  abominable  dialect. 
How  narrow  the  teachers  of  these  Swiss  schools  are  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that  they  actually  make  a  difference  in 
pronunciation  of  ei  and  ai,  two  diphthongs  for  which  the 
German  language  has  but  one  sound:  Rhein  and  Rain,  mein 
and  Main,  are  indistinguishable  by  the  ear.  Exercises  in 
orthography  are  painfully  monotonous,  and  the  school-tone 
in  reading  and  reciting  found  here  is  so  abominable  that  it 
resembled  a  sing-song  such  as  can  be  surpassed  only  by  the 
old-fashioned  oral  spelling  of  the  American  school  of  times 
gone  by :  "  C-o-n,  Con,  s-t-a-n,  stan,  Constan,  t-i,  ti,  Coustanti, 
n-o,  no,  p-l-e,  pie,  Constantinople." 

In  singing,  too,  the  results  were  unsatisfactory.  No  two- 
part  music  in  the  fourth  school  year,  nothing  but  the  simple 
melodies  of  popular  and  sacred  airs,  did  I  hear.  Since  it 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  teachers  and  pupils  put  their 
best  foot  foremost  when  a  visitor  is  present,  I  take  it  for 
granted  that  they  regaled  me  with  the  best  they  could  set 
before  me.  My  visit  occiirred  during  the  last  month  of  the 
school  year,  and  it  can  therefore  not  be  urged  as  an  excuse 
that  the  course  of  each  school  year  had  only  just  begun. 
The  school  year  in  Europe  generally  closes  at  Easter, 

A  hand-book  for  teachers,  entitled  "  Principles  of  Instruc- 
tion in  the  Primary  Schools,"  which  I  procured,  is  full  of 
narrow  views  and  antiquated  methods.     No  wonder  the 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS.  413 

teachers  looked  like  sleepy  horses  in  a  treadmill!  *  No- 
whei-e  here  did  I  find  that  fire  of  enthusiasm,  that  person- 
al magnetism,  so  often  observed  in  other  European  and  in 
American  schools.  Oh,  what  a  disappointment  that  was 
for  me,  who  had  come  to  Switzerland  with  eager  expecta- 
tion to  find  ideas  and  practices  worthy  of  being  transplant- 
ed to  the  fertile  soil  of  the  New  World!  Three  cities  I 
visited  in  Switzerland,  and  much  money  I  spent  in  travel- 
ing and  in  costly  hotels,  and  found  nothing  worthy  of 
note.  I  left  the  coiintry  sorry  that  I  was  poorer  by  a 
cherished  illusion. 

Still,  I  must  not  close  this  chapter  without  doing  justice 
in  some  manner  to  the  fact  that  reports  of  others  are  not  in 
harmony  with  mine.  Whether  these  people  applied  a  dif- 
ferent standard  of  measurement,  or  I  happened  to  strike 
the  wrong  places,  I  can  not  say.  I  read  glowing  accounts 
of  some  special  Swiss  schools,  regular  mines  of  information 
regarding  theory  and  practice,  and  the  professional  jour- 
nals published  in  that  country  also  are,  as  a  rule,  not  so 
conservative  and  backward  as  one  would  think,  judging 
from  what  I  saw  in  the  schools  I  visited ;  but  my  sense  of 
justice  will  not  permit  me  to  gloss  over  what  seemed  to  me 
faulty  in  toto. 

In  one  place  in  Switzerland  I  found  a  school  for  dullards 
(such  as  I  described  on  pages  77-91),  the  influence  of  which 
was  noticeable  in  the  other  schools,  since  it  raised  their 
standard  considerably.  I  also  found  manual  training- 
schools,  but  nowhere  so  finely  an  organized  one  nor  such 
brilliant  results  as  in  Prussia,  Saxony,  Austria,  and  France. 

2.  Industrial  Education  for  Girls. 

In  MiOhausen  (in  Alsace)  the  schools  have  undergone 
great  changes  since  Germany  has  regained  it.  Under  the 
firm  but  wise  management  of  Inspector  Hipp,  one  improve- 
ment after  another  has  been  introduced,  so  that  to-day  the 
schools  of  this  busy  town  rank  among  the  best  known  in 
Alsace.    The  French  rulers  grievously  sinned  against  the 


414  SWITZERLAND   AND   ALSACE. 

best  Interests  of  the  province  by  neglecting  school  education. 
The  buildings  are  still  wretched,  for  the  increase  of  pupils 
makes  too  great  a  demand  upon  the  city  treasury.  Old  fac- 
tory-buildings are  changed  to  school-houses,  and  it  needs  no 
fertile  imagination  to  picture  to  one's  self  the  inconveniences 
arising  therefrom. 

I  found  a  "  unicum "  of  a  school  here  such  as  I  hope 
never  again  to  see — a  school  containing  no  less  than  sixty- 
two  class-rooms,  several  offices,  and  the  rector's  dwelling,, 
all  in  a  conglomerate  of  buildings  rickety  and  shabby.  The 
pupils  on  the  third  floor  must  wait  till  the  other  floors  ai'e 
empty  before  they  can  be  dismissed.  The  whole  building  is 
one  great  dangerous  man-trap.  In  case  of  a  fire,  thousands 
of  children's  lives  would  be  in  danger.  This  school  is  a  blot 
upon  the  fair  reputation  of  the  city  of  Miilhausen. 

But  what  excellent  work  is  done  in  this  old  building! 
Here  is  found  an  industrial  school  for  boys,  having  four 
workshops.  Here  is  also  a  most  successful  industrial  school 
for  girls.  Compare  these  figures :  Within  the  year  1887  the 
girls  worked  articles,  such  as  stockings,  shirts,  tidies,  etc., 
which  were  sold  for  5, 534*23  marks,  the  material  having 
been  furnished  by  the  city  authorities,  and  had  cost  3,218  "SI 
marks,  so  that  the  busy  hands  of  the  little  girls  had 
produced  a  value  of  2,315  "42  marks.  This  entire  gain 
is  used  to  furnish  the  schools  of  the  city  with  means  of 
instruction — charts,  apparatus,  musical  instruments,  tools, 
etc. 

How  practical  the  women  are  who  teach  in  this  depart- 
ment is  seen  fi^om  the  fact  that  there  is  no  waste.  The 
bands  or  straps  knitted  by  the  six-year-old  girls,  on  which 
they  learn  the  different  kinds  of  knitting,  are  sewed  to- 
gether to  make  pretty  little  petticoats.  The  pieces  of  mus- 
lin left  over  from  cutting  out  aprons  are  sewed  together 
for  quilts,  and  thus  all  waste  is  prevented.  The  exhibition 
of  girls'  needlework  was  fully  as  interesting  as  that  in 
Cologne. 

That  the  work  in  this  industrial  school  is  no  mere  me- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS. 


415 


chanical  humdrum  is  seen  from  the  care  with  which  each 
article  is  drawn  and  cut  according  to  given  measurements, 
J  append  a  few  sketches  which  will  illustrate  this. 


A 

[B 

D 

D 

B  |A| 

fl 

^ 

Fig.  1 

^ 

FRC 

^T. 

\ 

C 

a 

b 

d 

d 

\ 

c 

a 

\^ 

•''' 

A 

1 

V 

c' 

^i: 

1.2 

c 

F 

PAi 

»K 

.... 

G 

E 

f 

^G 

G 

1 

^-J 


Figs.  521-523. 


28 


416  SWITZERLAND   AND   ALSACE. 

The  different  benevolent  societies  of  the  city  buy  the  arti- 
cles made  by  the  little  school-girls.  Thus,  for  instance,  I 
find  the  following  societies  mentioned — "  The  Benevolent  So- 
ciety," "The  Lying-in  Hospital,"  "The  Sisters  of  the  Poor," 
"  The  Maternal  Society  " — as  purchasers.  Darning  and  other 
kinds  of  mending  are  important  branches  of  needlework 
here  in  Miilhausen. 

3.  A  Lesson  m  Philology. 

It  was  a  rare  treat  that  I  had  one  day  in  a  school  of  Al- 
sace, where  I  listened  to  a  language  -  lesson.  The  word 
^'Kleinod^^  (jewel)  occurred  in  a  sentence,  and  the  pupils 
were  requested  to  define  or  paraphrase  it.  There  being 
some  difficulty  in  this,  the  teacher  asked,  "Separate  the 
syllables."  The  pupils  hesitated,  not  knowing  whether  to 
write  Klein-od  or  Klei-nod;  but  they  finally  determined 
to  separate  them  thus,  "'Klein-od.^''  "Well,  then,  there 
are  two  words  in  one,  namely,  Klein  and  od.  There 
is  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  first  part  {little),  but 
the  second  must  have  a  meaning  also.  What  is  it  ? "  No 
response. 

Teacher.  "The  word  is  quite  old.  We  have  to  search 
for  its  meaning  in  the  oldest  records  of  the  German  lan- 
guage. Who  was  the  greatest  of  the  gods  in  German 
mythology  ? " 

Pupil.  ''Odin.'"' 

Teacher.  "  Yes  ;  Odin  was  the  greatest  of  gods.  And 
what  did  the  word  god  mean  originally  ? " 

Pupil.  "  I  think  it  meant  gut  (good)." 

Teacher.  "  Yes ;  and  up  to  the  present  day  the  word  gut 
is  used  to  signify  a  possession  (goods).  Mention  a  woi'd  in 
which  this  is  apparent." 

Pupil.  "  Landgut  (farm)." 

Teacher.  "True.  Now  remember  that  gut  (good  or 
goods)  and  od  are  the  same  words,  and  mean  as  in  ancient 
time  so  even  now  both  Gott  (God)  and  gut  (good  or  goods). 
Now,  what  does  Kleinod  mean  ? " 


A  LESSON  IN  PHILOLOGY.  417 

Pupil.  "  It  must  mean  a  little  possession,  or  perhaps  a 
little  treasure." 

Teacher.  "Exactly — some  valuable  goods,  as  precious 
stones,  small,  yet  whose  intrinsic  value  is  greater  than  that 
of  many  bulky  possessions.  A  synonym  of  Kleinod  \s  jewel. 
Now,  think  of  the  opposite  meaning  of  Kleinod.'''' 

Instantly  the  reply  came,  "  It  must  be  Allod." 

Teacher.  ''Yes;  state  its  meaning." 

Pupil.  "Possessions  in  land  belonging  to  an  ancient 
aristocratic  family." 

Teacher.  "Correct;  the  allodial  possessions  could  not  be 
divided,  but  remained  forever  inalienable  in  a  family.  Such 
allods  are  still  found  in  England,  where  only  the  eldest  sons 
of  aristocratic  families  inherit  the  lands  and  titles.  From 
the  explanation  of  such  words  as  Kleinod  and  Allod  you 
may  judge  how  consistent  the  German  language  is  in  word- 
building." 

The  conversation  did  not  last  many  minutes.  But  what 
an  amount  of  thought  -  bearing  information  was  given  I 
What  openings  into  other  realms  of  thought  were  ofiPered  ! 
What  an  interest  was  awakened  among  the  pupils  who  thus 
"  made  the  acquaintance  of  words  "  !  This  short  episode  of 
the  lesson  reminded  me  of  that  inscription  over  the  gate  of 
an  Arabian  school.  "  Here  is  a  place  where  children  are 
taught  the  beginning  of  words  " ;  and  again  it  reminded  me 
of  the  fact  that  English  and  American  children  often  use 
words  thoughtlessly  which  might  be  to  them  as  transparent 
as  crystal  if  the  dictionary  were  diligently  used.  Such  a 
word  as  atonement,  Latin  as  it  looks  and  sounds,  is  yet 
an  easy  word  to  understand  if  built  over  again  from  at-one- 
ment.  Children  who  are  taught  to  apply  to  the  diction^ 
ary  acquire  a  remarkable  command  over  the  queen's  Eng- 
lish, while  without  it  they  forever  remain  as  ignorant  as  my 
servant  who  "  spelled "  through  a  newspaper  in  his  leisure 
hours,  and  thought  "the  constitutionality  of  a  measure'' 
meant  the  size  of  a  bushel  or  yard-stick  I 


418  SWITZERLAND   AND   ALSACE. 

4.  Crumbs. — Notes  from  the  Schools  of  Mulhausen. 

A  good  deal  of  sketcliing  is  done  here,  such  as  I  described 
in  other  chapters  of  this  book.  The  children  talk  with 
chalk  as  readily  as  they  express  their  thoughts  orally  and  in 
writing.  Thus,  I  saw  a  boy  go  to  the  board  and  illustrate 
his  recitation  of  the  bees  by  sketching  rapidly  and  very  ac- 
curately the  wings,  head,  and  feet  of  a  bee.  Another,  speak- 
ing of  birds,  sketched  the  characteristic  forms  of  wings 
and  beaks.  This  sketching  is  an  enviable  skill,  and  possi- 
ble only  where  the  practice  of  sketching  is  made  a  daily 
occurrence. 

When  I  inquired  for  the  causes  of  the  almost  faultless 
orthography  I  noticed  in  the  composition- books,  I  was  told 
that  they  had  a  rule  "n  these  schools  which  made  mistakes 
almost  impossible — to  wit,  ''Do  not  correct  but  avoid  mis- 
takes." Every  word  dictated  is  looked  at  and  dissected  before 
it  is  written.  If,  perchance,  a  pupil  does  err,  he  is  made  to 
erase  it  and  insert  the  correct  form  so  carefully  that  the  pro- 
ductions or  reproductions  are  absolutely  faultless. 

While  the  recitations  here  are  generally  individual  where 
the  pupils'  own  thoughts  play  an  important  role,  a  novel 
thing  to  me  was  the  perfection  in  class  recitation.  I  heard 
classes  speak  in  chorus  as  though  it  was  but  one  voice. 
Poems  were  thus  recited  faultless  in  emphasis  and  accent. 
In  no  other  school  in  all  my  wanderings  through  Europe 
did  I  meet  a  similar  perfection  in  concert  recitation. 

Each  teacher  here  keeps  a  "diarium,"  a  day-book,  in 
which  the  subject  of  each  lesson  is  noted  down.  When  the 
inspector,  whose  desire  is  to  keep  the  different  classes  of  the 
same  grade  on  a  level,  enters  a  school-room,  he  never  fails  to 
inspect  this  book,  and  he  frequently  takes  occasion  to  enter 
a  note  of  commendation  or  reproof.  The  teachers  are  nearly 
all  of  Prussian  descent,  not  natives  of  Alsace,  and  the  use  of 
the  French  language  is  consistently  discouraged. 

The  citizens  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  are  still  somewhat 
obstinate  against  the  German  rule,  but  they  are  unanimous 


NOTES  FROM  THE  SCHOOLS  OF   MCLHAUSEN.       419 

in  praising  the  common  schools  with  which  they  have  been 
blessed.  During  the  French  rule  their  schools  were  kept  by 
superannuated  men,  who  "  did  much  in  patriotism  "  but  lit- 
tle in  real  teaching.  I  gathered  these  facts  from  men  of  the 
people,  with  whom  I  took  occasion  to  speak  of  the  schools 
while  traveling  through  Alsace. 


THE  END. 


THE 


Historical  Reference -Book, 

OOMPBIBINQ  : 

A   Chronological  Table  of  Universal  History,  a  Chronological  Diction- 
ary of  Universal  History,  a  Biographical  Dictionary. 

WITH  GEOQRAFHICAL   NOTES. 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  STUDENTS,  TEACHERS,  AND  READERS. 

By  LOUIS  HEILPRIN. 


New  edition.    Crown  8vo.    Half  leather,  $3.C0. 

"  A  second  revised  edition  of  Mr.  Louis  Tleilprin's  'Historical  Reference-Book'  has 
just  appeared,  marlvinsr  the  well-earned  success  of  this  admirable  work — a  dictionary 
of  dates,  a  dictionary  of  events  (with  a  special  gazetteer  for  the  places  mentioned),  and 
a  concise  biojrraphical  dictionary,  all  in  one,  and  nil  in  the  highest  degree  trustworthy. 
Mr.  Heilprin's  revision  is  as  thorough  as  his  oiiginal  work.  Any  one  can  test  it  by 
running  over  the  list  of  persons  deceased  since  this  manual  first  appeared.  Correc- 
tions, too,  have  been  made,  as  we  can  testily  in  one  instance  at  least." — New  York 
jLvening  Posit. 

"  One  of  the  most  complete,  compact,  and  valuable  works  of  reference  yet  pro- 
duced."— Troy  Daily  Times. 

"  Dnequaled  in  its  field."— Boston  Courier. 

"A  small  library  in  itself." — Chicago  Dial. 

"An  invaluable  book  of  reference,  useful  alike  to  the  student  and  the  general  reader. 
The  arrangement  could  scarcely  be  better  or  more  convenient." — New  York  UercUd. 

"  The  conspectus  of  the  world's  history  presented  in  the  first  part  of  the  book  is  as 
ftiU  as  the  wisest  terseness  c(.uld  put  w  ithin  the  space." — Philadelphia  American. 

"  We  miss  hardly  anything  that  we  should  consider  desirable,  and  we  have  not  been 
able  to  detect  a  single  mistake  or  misprint." — New  York  Nation. 

'•So  far  as  we  have  tested  the  accuracy  of  the  present  work  we  have  found  It  with- 
out flaw."— 6'Awiia/i  Union. 

"  The  conspicuous  merits  of  the  work  are  condensation  and  accuracy.  These  points 
alone  .should  suffice  to  give  the  '  Historical  Reference-Book  "  a  place  in  every  public 
and  i)rivate  library." — Boston  Beacon. 

"The  method  of  the  tabulation  is  admirable  for  ready  reference."— iVew  York 
Home  Joui  nal. 

"  This  cycloptedia  of  condensed  knowledge  is  a  work  that  will  speedily  becoi/ie  a 
necessity  to  the  general  readir,  as  well  as  to  the  student."' — Detroit  Free  Press. 

"For  clearness,  correctness,  and  the  readiness  with  which  the  reader  can  find  the 
Information  of  which  he  is  in  search,  the  volume  is  far  in  advance  of  any  work  of  its 
kind  with  which  we  are  acquainted."- 5o^to/4  Saturday  Evening  Gazette. 

"The  latest  dites  have  been  eiven.  The  geographical  notes  which  accompany 
the  historica'.  incidents  are  a  novel  addition,  and  exceedingly  helpful.  The  size  al^o 
commends  it.  making  It  convenient  for  constant  reference,  while  the  three  divisions 
and  careful  elimination  of  minor  and  uninteresting  incidents  make  it  much  easier  to 
find  diites  and  events  about  which  accuracy  is  necessary.  Sir  William  Hamilton  avers 
that  too  retentive  a  memory  tends  to  himler  the  development  of  the  judgment  by  pre- 
senting too  much  for  decision.  A  work  like  this  is  thus  better  than  memory.  It  is  a 
'mental  larder'  which  needs  no  care,  and  whose  contents  are  ever  available." — JSevi 
York  Umverdty  Quarttrly. 

New  York:  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1.  3.  &  6  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLE  TON   &    00/S   PUBLICATIONS. 


'■'■For  a  still  higher  order  of  students,  ice  have  a  series  of  '■Classical  Writers.' 
This  we  can  not  praise  too  w4t«;A."— Westminster  Eeview. 


CLASSICAL  WRITERS 

Edited  by  JOHN   RICHARD   GREEN,  M.  A.,  LL.  D. 


16ino,  flexible  cloth.  -         _         .         _  60  cents  each. 


MIIiTON.     By  Stopford  A.  Brooke.  . 

"  The  life  is  accompanied  by  careful  synopses  of  Milton's  prose  and  poetical 
works,  and  by  scholarly  estimates  and  ctiticisms  of  them.  Arranged  in  brief  para- 
grajjhs,  and  clothed  in  a  simple  and  perspicuous  style,  the  volume  introduces  the 
pupil  directly  to  the  author  it  describes,  and  not  only  familiarizes  him  with  his 
method  of  composition,  but  with  his  exquisite  fancies  and  lofty  conceptions,  and 
enables  him  to  see  practically  and  intelligently  what  an  expressive  and  sonorous 
instrument  our  tongue  is  in  the  hands  of  one  of  its  mightiest  masters." — Harper^s 
Magazine. 

EURIPIDE,^.     By  Professor  J.  P.  Mahaffy. 

"  A  better  book  on  the  subject  than  has  previously  been  written  in  English. 
He  is  scholarly  and  not  pedantic,  appreciative  and  yet  just."— iowt^ow  Academy. 

TERGIL.     By  Professor  II.  Xettleship. 

"The  information  is  all  sound  and  good,  and  no  such  hand-book  has  before 
been  within  the  reach  of  the  young  student.  Any  one  who  wishes  to  read  Vergil 
intelligently,  and  not  merely  to  cram  so  many  books  of  the  '  ^neid  '  for  an  exami- 
nation, should  buy  Professor  Nettleship's  scholarly  monogi-aph." — London  Athe- 
naeum. 

SOPHOCI.es.     By  Professor  Lewis  CAMPBEtL. 

"  We  can  not  close  without  again  recommending  the  little  book  to  all  lovers  of 
Sophocles,  as  an  able  and  eloquent  picture  of  the  life  and  work  of  one  of  the 
greatest  dramatic  writers  the  world  has  ever  seen." — London  Athenaeum. 

LIVY.     By  Rev.  W.  W.  Capes,  M.  A. 

"  Well  deserves  attentive  study  on  many  accounts,  especially  for  the  variety  of 
Its  theme  and  the  concise  perspicuity  of  its  treatment." — London  Saturday  Review. 

DEMOSTHENES.     By  S.  H.  Butcher,  Fellow  of  University  College, 
Oxford. 

"This  is  an  admirable  little  book.  Mr.  Butcher  has  brought  his  finished 
scholarship  to  bear  on  a  difficult  but  most  interesting  chaf  let  of  Greek  literary 
history  ;  .  .  .  the  primer  is  as  fresh  and  attractive  in  form  as  it  is  ripe  in  learning 
and  thorough  in  method."— iorarfcw  Academy. 


New  York:  D.  APPLETON   &   CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

LANDMARKS  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  By  Henry 
J.  NicoLL.  12mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 
"  The  plan  adopted  in  this  book  has  been  to  deal  solely  with  the  very 
greatest  names  in  the  several  departments  of  English  literature— with  those 
writere  whose  works  are  among  the  most  imperishable  glories  of  Britain, 
and  with  whom  it  is  a  disgrace  for  even  the  busiest  to  remain  unacquainted." 
— From,  the  Preface.  

"  The  '  Landmarks  of  English  Literature '  is  a  work  of  exceptional  value.  It 
reveals  scholarship  and  high  literary  ability.  Mr.  Nicoil  has  a  pioper  conception 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lives,  and  of  its  requirements  in  the  special  line  in  which 
he  has  attempted  to  work." — New  York  Herald. 

"We can  warmly  recommend  this  excellent  manual."— iSi.  James's  Gazette. 

"  Mr.  Nicoil  is  not  ambitions,  save  to  state  things  precisely  as  they  are,  to  give 
the  common  orthodox  judgment  on  great  authors  and  their  places  in  history,  and 
he  has  brought  to  his  task  a  mild  enthusiasm  of  style  and  a  conscientiousness  of 
exact  statement  that  can  not  be  overpraised.  He  wiites  out  of  a  full  mind,  and  jet 
he  writes  on  a  level  with  the  ordinary  intelligence." — New  York  Timts. 

"It  would  be  hard  to  find  anywhere  an  example  of  a  more  pithy,  compact,  yet 
attractive  presentation  of  the  real  landmarks  of  the  literature  than  is  compriEed  in 
this  duodecimo  of  460  pages." — New  York  Home  Journal. 

"  The  work  abounds  in  personal  incident  and  anecdote  connected  with  varions 
authors,  which  assist  the  reader  in  making  their  acquaintance,  and  w  hich  give  to 
the  book  a  more  lively  a8i)ect  than  one  of  cold  criticism." — New  York  Obseiter. 

"A  book  to  be  most  heartily  commended.  "—5o»/o«  Traveller. 

"  It  has  ample  narrative  and  happy  criticisms,  and  is  filled  w  ith  instructive  ard 
entertaining  matter  admirably  presented.  It  would  be  haid  to  suggest  improve- 
ment in  style  or  arrangement." — Boston  Commonwealth. 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    ENGLISH    THOUGHT.     The 

Old  English  Period.     By  Brother  Azarias,  Professor  of   English 
Literature  in  Rock  Hill  College,  Maryland.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

"  In  some  respects  the  author  has  written  a  text- book  superior  to  any  we  know 
now  in  use.  There  are  few  writers  so  well  prepared  in  what  might  be  termed  the 
technique  of  Old  English  history  and  literature.  His  chapter  on  the  Kelt  and 
Teuton  is  admirable." — New  York  Twies. 

"  The  work  will  commend  itself  to  notice  for  its  concise  and  agreeable  style, 
its  logical  method,  and  the  philosophic  and  poetic,  as  well  as  historical,  treatment 
of  the  theme.    The  author  is  master  of  his  subject." — Protidence  Journal. 

"  The  author  has  exhibited  great  skill  In  presenting  to  the  reader  a  clear  and 
correct  view  of  the  literature  and  condition  of  things  in  England  at  that  remote 
age,  and  the  work  is  one  of  special  ii-terest." — Boston  Post. 

"  A  valuable  text-book.  ''^—Boston  Globe. 

"A  work  of  remarkable  interest."- Boston  Evening  Transcript. 

"A  book  of  genuine  literary  interest  and  value." — Cleveland  Herald. 

"  Within  its  covers  there  is  a  wealth  of  erudition,  research,  and  scholarly  Isbor, 
which  places  the  book  beside  those  of  Wright,  Spalding,  and  Craik.  The  Er.glish 
of  the  writer  is  a  model  for  clearness  and  point." — Utica  Daily  Observer. 

"  One  of  the  most  thorough  and  best-arranged  books  on  the  subject  that  we 
have  seen."— TVoy  Press. 

New  York :   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  8,  6  Bond  Street 


D.  APPLETON  &   CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

BRAIN  EXHAUSTION,  with  some  Preliminary  Considerations  on 
Cerebral  Dynamics.  By  J.  Leonard  Corning,  M.  D.,  formerly  Resi- 
dent Physician  to  the  Hudson  lUver  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth,  $2.00. 

''The  author  begins  by  laying  a  broad  roundation  for  his  deductions  in  con- 
sidering ihe  law  of  the  convertibility  ot  forces  to  t:ie  dynamics  of  the  brain.  Tnis 
parallelism  between  inanimate  physics  and  cerebral  action  is  closely  tollowed  by 
our  author,  and  vvitli  excellent  results.  Dr.  Coming  proceeds  to  ciassil'y  his  facts, 
which  appear  to  be  drawn  from  wide  experience  and  study,  and  to  marshal  them 
with  the  tekillof  a  trained  scientist.  He  tirst  considers  the  various  existing  causes 
wliich  conduce  to  brain  exhaustion  in  the  physical  sense,  such  as  alcohol-drink- 
ing, tobacco,  excessive  sexualism,  irregular  hours,  etc. ;  in  the  mental  sense, 
overwork,  whether  iu  study  and  ousiness,  fret  and  worry,  false  educational  meth- 
ods, etc.  He  concludes  with  a  summary  of  the  principles  of  brain  hygienics,  and 
indicates  very  clearly  how  brain  exhaustion  may  be  remedied  before  the  final  and 
inevitable  result  comes.  In  these  latter  chapters  the  author  discusses  the  relation 
of  blood  to  muscle  and  brain,  the  relation  of  food  to  mental  plienomena,  rest, 
special  medication,  etc.  The  book  is  admirably  written.  The  style  is  simple, 
(■iroct,  lucid,  with  as  much  avoidance  as  possible  of  technical  terms  and  purely 
professional  logic.  It  is  a  tinieljr  work,  which  every  thinking  man  can  read  with 
interest  without  being  a  physician.  Brain-workers  everywhere  can  study  this 
able  digest  with  both  profit  and  pleasure."— -jScfecWc  Magazine. 

OUTLINES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY,  with  Special  Reference  to  the 
Theory  of  Education.  A  Text-Book  for  Colleges.  By  James  Sully, 
A.  M.,  Examiner  for  the  Moral  Sciences  Tripos  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  etc.,  etc.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  $3.00. 

"  A  book  tbat  has  been  long  w.-mted  by  all  who  are  enfifcd  in  the  business  of 
teacl  insr  and  desire  to  tn-ster  its  principles.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  an  elaborate 
treatise  on  the  human  mind,  of  independent  merit  as  representing  the  latest  and 
best  work  of  all  schonls  of  ppychological  inquiry.  But  of  equal  importance,  and 
what  will  be  prized  as  a  new  and  most  desirable  feature  of  a  work  on  mental 
science,  is  the  cdncational  applications  that  are  made  throuffhoiit  in  separate  text 
and  type,  so  that,  with  the  explication  of  mental  phenomena,  there  comes  at  once 
the  application  to  the  art  of  education." 

BODY  AND  WILL :  being  an  Essay  concerning  Will  in  its  Meta- 
physical, Physiological,  and  Pathological  Aspects.  By  Henrt 
Maitdslky,  M.  D.     8vo,  cloth,  $2.50. 

"  Dr.  Manflslev's  now^rs  of  loTic  have  never  been  more  keenly  exercised  than 
in  '  Pody  and  Will,'  his  bitest  volume.  He  takes  the  ultra  materialistic  view  of 
the  human  mind,  and  regards  will  a«  the  result  of  definite  matf^rial  causes,  so 
that,  were  syntheticnl  science  a  little  further  advanced,  it  woull  he  possible. 
haviiET  given  physical  conditions,  to  declare  the  inevitable  resnlt.  The  skill  and 
enidition  displaye  1  in  '  Body  "nd  Will '  are  only  equaled  by  the  keenness  of  ite 
criticisms  npon'wbst.  from  the  writer's  point  of  view,  are  empirical  dogmas. 
No  fairer  or  more  able  exposition  on  the  Intest  scientific  tenchintr  unon  the  sub- 
ject of  man  as  a  free  agent  is  to  be  found  than  io  this  volnme."— .Boston  Courier. 


New  York:  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLETON  d  CO.'S  PUBLIOAllONS. 


ALEXANDER     BAIN'S     WORKS. 

THE   SENSES  AND  THE   INTELLECT.     8vo.     Cloth,  $5.00. 

The  object  of  this  treatise  is  to  give  a  full  and  eystematic  account  of  two 
principal  divieions  of  the  science  of  mind— the  senses  and  the  intellect.  The 
value  of  the  third  edition  of  the  work  is  greatly  enhanced  by  an  account  of  the 
psychology  of  Aristotle,  which  has  been  contributed  by  Mr.  Grote. 

THE  EMOTIONS  AND  THE  WILL.     8vo.     Cloth,  $5.00. 

The  present  publication  is  a  sequel  to  the  former  one  on  "  The  Senses  and  the 
Intellect,' '  and  completes  a  systematic  exposition  of  the  human  mind. 

MIND  AND   BODY.     Theories  of  their  Relations.     12mo.     Cloth, 
$1.50. 

"  A  forcible  statement  of  the  connection  between  mind  and  body,  studying 
their  subtile  interworkings  by  the  light  of  the  most  recent  physiological  investi- 
gations."—CAmttan  Register. 

EDUCATION  AS  A  SCIENCE.     12mo.     Ooth,  $1.75. 

ON   TEACHING   ENGLISH.     With   Detailed   Examples  and  an 
Inquiry  into  the  Definition  of  Poetry.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

PRACTICAL  ESSAYS.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 


Dr.    H.   ALLEYNE    NICHOLSON'S    \A^ORKS. 

MANUAL  OF  ZOOLOGY,  for  the  Use  of  Student.s,  with  a  Gen- 
eral Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Zoology.  Second  edition. 
Revised  and  enlarged,  with  243  Woodcuts.     12ino.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

THE    ANCIENT    LIFE-HISTORY    OF    THE     EARTH. 

A  Comprehensive  Outline  of  the  Piinciples  and  Leading  Facts  of 
Palaeontological  Science.     12mo.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

"  A  work  by  a  master  in  the  science  who  understands  the  significance  of  every 
phenomenon  which  he  records,  and  knows  how  to  make  it  reveal  ite  lessons.  As 
regards  its  value  there  can  scarcely  exist  two  opinions.  As  a  text-book  of  the 
historical  phase  of  palaeontology  it  will  be  indispensable  to  students,  whether 
specially  pursuing  geology  or  biology  ;  and  without  it  no  man  who  aspires  even  to 
an  outline  knowledge  of  natural  science  can  deem  his  library  complete."— TAtf 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Science. 


New  York:   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  S,  &  6  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


E 


NEW   EDITION   OF    SPENCER'S   ESSAYS. 

SSA  YS :  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative.  By 
Herbert  Spencer.  A  new  edition,  uniform  with  Mr.  Spencer's 
other  works,  including  Seven  New  Essays.  Three  volumes, 
l2mo,  1,460  pages,  with  full  Subject-Index  of  twenty-four  pages. 
Cloth.  $6.00. 

CONTENTS   OF   VOLUME   I. 

The  Social  Organism. 

The  Origin  of  Animal  Worship. 

Morals  and  Moral  Sentiments, 

The  Comparative  Psychology  of  Man. 

Mr.  Martineau  on  Evolution. 

The  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution.* 


The  Development  Hypothesis. 

Progress :  its  Law  and  Cause. 

Transcendental  Physiology. 

The  Nebular  Hypothesis, 

Illogical  Geology. 

Bain  on  the  Emotions  and  the  WilL 


CONTENTS   OF 

The  Genesis  of  Science 

The  Classification  of  the  Sciences. 

Reasons  for  dissenting  from  the  Phi- 
losophy of  M.  Comte. 

On  Laws  in  General,  and  the  Order 
of  their  Discovery. 

The  Valuation  of  Evidence. 

What  is  Electricity  ? 

Mill  versus  Hamilton — The  Test  of 
Truth. 

CONTENTS   OF 

Manners  and  Fashion. 
Railway   Morals  and    Railway 

Policy. 
The  Morals  of  Trade. 
Prison-Ethics. 
The  Ethics  of  Kant. 
Absolute  Political  Ethics. 
Over- Legislation. 
Representative   Government — 

What  is  it  good  for  ? 


*  Also  published  separately, 
t  Also  published  separately. 
\  Also  published  separately. 


lamo, 
i2mo. 
i2mo. 


VOLUME   II. 

Replies  to  Criticisms. 

Prof.  Green's  Explanations. 

The  Philosophy  of  Style.t 

Use  and  Beauty. 

The  Sources  of  Architectural  Types 

Gracefulness. 

Personal  Beauty. 

The  Origin  and  Function  of  Music. 

The  Physiology  of  Laughter. 

VOLUME   III. 

State-Tampering   with   Money  and 

Banks 
Parliamentary  Reform :  the  Dangers 

and  the  Safeguards. 
"  The  Collective  Wisdom." 
Political  Fetichism. 
Specialized  Administration. 
From  Freedom  to  Bondage. 
The  Americans. I 
Index. 

Cloth,  75  cents. 
Cloth,  50  cents. 
Paper,  10  cents ;  cloth,  50  cents. 


New  York:  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  i,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS  OF   HERBERT   SPENCER. 

pnUCATION :     Intellectual,   Moral,   and  Physical. 

"^^^    i2mo.     Paper,  50  cents  ;  cloth,  $1.25. 

Contents:   What  Knowledge  is  of  most  Worth ? — Intellectual  Education. — Moral 
Exlucaiion. — Physical  Education. 


C^OCIAL    STATICS ;    or,   2 he  Conditions  Essential  to 

*^^^       Human  Happiness   Specified,  and  the  First  of  them  Developed. 

i2mo.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

Contents:  Introduction. — Lemma  I.  ITie  Doctrine  of  Expediency. — Lemma  II. 
The  Doctrine  of  the  Moral  Sense.  Pari  I.  Definition  of  Morality. — The  Eva- 
nescence of  Evil  — The  Divine  Idea,  and  the  Conditions  of  its  Realization.  Part  II. 
Derivation  of  a  First  Principle. — Secondary  Derivation  of  a  First  Principle. — First 
Principle. — Application  of  this  First  Principle. — The  Rights  of  Life  and  Personal  Lib- 
erty.—The  Right  to  the  Use  of  the  Earth.— The  Right  of  Property.— The  Right  of 
Property  in  Ideas. — The  Right  of  Property  in  Character. — The  Right  of  Exchange. — 
The  Right  of  Free  Speech. — Further  Rights. — The  Rights  of  Women. — The  Rights  of 
Childien.  Part  III.  Political  Rights. — The  Right  to  ignore  the  State. — The  Consti- 
tution of  the  State. — The  Duty  of  the  State. — The  Limit  of  State-Duty. — The  Regula- 
tion of  Commerce. — Religious  Establishment. — Poor-Laws. — National  Education  — 
Government  Colonization. — Sanitary  Supervision. — Currency,  Postal  Arrangements, 
etc.     Part  IV.  General  Considerations. — Summary. — Conclusion. 


'J^HE    STUDY    OF    SOCIOLOGY.     i2mo.     Cloth. 
-*       $1.50. 

Contents:  Our  Need  of  it. — Is  there  a  Social  Science?— Nature  of  the  Social 
Science. — Difficulties  of  the  Social  Science. — Oljective  Difficulties. — Subjective  Diffi- 
culties, Intellectual. — Subjective  Difficulties,  Emotional. — The  Educational  Bias. — The 
Bias  of  Patriotism. — The  Class-Bias. — The  Political  Bias. — The  Theological  Bias. — 
Discipline.— Preparation  in  Biology.— Preparation  in  Psychology. — Conclusion. 


'J^HE  MAN  VERSUS   THE  STATE.    8vo.    Paper, 

30  cents. 

CoNTBNTS :  The  New  Toiyism.— The  Coming  Slavery.— The  Sins  of  Legislators.— 
The  Great  Political  Superstition, 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  i,  3.  &  5  Bond  Street 


T 


D.  APPLETON  &   CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


"HE  HISTOR  Y  OF  ANCIENT  CfVILIZA  TION. 

A  Hand-book  based  upon  M.  GusTAVE  Ducoudray's  "  His- 
toire  Sommaire  de  la  Civilisation."  Edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  Ver- 
SCHOYLE,  M.  A.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Large  i2mo. 
Cloth,  $1.75. 

"With  M.  Ducoudray's  work  as  a  basis,  many  additions  having  been  made,  derived 
from  special  writers,  Mr.  Verschoyle  has  i  reduced  an  excellent  work,  which  gives  a 
comprehensive  view  of  early  civihzation.  .  .  .  j*s  to  the  world  of  the  past,  the  volume 
under  notice  treats  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  the  Far  East,  of  Greece  and  Rome,  in  the  most 
comprehensive  manner.  It  is  not  the  arts  alone  which  aie  fully  illustrated,  but  the 
literature,  laws,  manners,  and  customs,  the  beliefs  of  all  these  countries  are  contrasted. 
If  the  book  gave  alone  the  history  of  the  monuments  of  the  past  it  would  be  valuable, 
but  it  is  its  all-around  character  which  renders  it  so  useful.  A  great  many  volumes 
have  been  produced  treating  of  a  past  civilization,  but  we  have  seen  none  which  in  tne 
same  space  gives  such  varied  information." — New  York  limes. 

'J^HE  HISTOR  Y  OF  MODERN  CI VI LIZA  TION. 

■*  A  Hand-book  also  based  upon  M.  Gust  AVE  Ducoudray's 
"  Histoire  Sommaire  de  la  Civilisation  "  ;  edited  by  the  Rev.  J. 
Verschoyle,  M.A.  Illustrated.  Uniform  with  "  The  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Civilization."      i2mo.      Cloth,  $2.25. 

"Contains  a  vast  quantity  of  information  on  many  subjects,  generally  arranged 
with  much  skill  " — Saturday  ReTiew. 

"The  work  of  author  and  adapter  has  been  admirably  executed,  and  the  result  is 
that  rarest  of  literary  portents — a  summary  at  once  comprehensive  and  readable." — 
London  Telegraph. 


T 


HE  ICE  AGE  IN  NORTH  AMERICA,  and  its 
Bearings  upon  the  Antiquity  of  Man.  By  G.  Frederick 
Wright,  D.D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  G.  S.A.,  Professor  in  Oberlin 
Theological  Seminary  ;  Assistant  on  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey.  With  an  Appendix  on  "  The  Probable  Cause 
of  Glaciation,"  by  Warren  Upham,  F.  G  S.  A.,  Assistant  on 
the  Geological  Surveys  of  New  Hampshire,  Minnesota,  and 
the  United  States.  With  147  Maps  and  Illustrations.  New 
and  enlarged  edition,  1891.  One  vol.,  8vo,  625  pages,  and 
Index.     Cloth,  $5.00. 

"Not  a  novel  in  all  the  list  of  this  year's  publications  has  in  it  any  pages  of  more 
thrilling  interest  than  can  be  found  in  this  book  by  Professor  Wright.  There  is  noth- 
ing pedantic  in  the  nanative,  and  the  most  serious  theines  and  startling  discoveries  aie 
treated  with  such  charming  natunlness  and  simplicity  that  boys  and  girls,  as  well  as 
their  seniors,  will  be  attracted  to  the  story,  and  find  it  difficult  to  lay  it  aside. "^AVro 
York  Journal  0/  Commerce. 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  i,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


D.   APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


USEFUL  BOOKS  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

'T^HE    VERBALIST.     A  Manual  devoted  to  Brief  Discus- 
-»        sions  of  the  Right  and  the  Wrong  Use  of  Words,  and  to  some 
other  Matters  of  Interest  to  those  who  would  Speak  and  Write 
with  Propriety.     By  ALFRED  Ayres.     i8mo.     Cloth,  $i.oo. 


T 


HE  ORTHOEPIST.  A  Pronouncing  Manual,  contain- 
ing about  Three  Thousand  Five  Hundred  Words,  including  a 
considerable  Number  of  the  Names  of  Foreign  Authors,  Art- 
ists, etc.,  that  are  often  mispronounced.  By  Alfred  Ayres. 
i8mo.     Cloth,  $i.oo. 


'J^HE  RHYMESTER ;  or  the  Rules  of  Rhyme.     A 

-»        Guide  to  English  Versification.    With  a  Dictionary  of  Rhymes, 

an  Examination  of  Classical   Measures,  and  Comments  upon 

Burlesque,  Comic  Verse,  and  Song-Writing.     By  the  late  ToM 

Hood.     Edited  by  Arthur  Penn.     i8mo.     Cloth,  $i.oo. 


T 


HE  CORRESPONDENT.  By  James  Wood  David- 
son. Small  i2mo.  Cloth,  60  cents.  Information,  with  forms 
of  address,  salutation,  etc. 


pRRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  ENGLISH.    By  the 
J—^    late  William    B.   Hodgson,   LL.  D.,    Professor  of   Political 

Economy  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.     American  revised 

edition.     i2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

^L/PS  OF  TONGUE  AND  PEN.    By  J.  H.  Long, 
^^       M.  A.,  Principal  of  Collegiate  Institute,  Peterborough,  Ontario. 
i2mo.     Cloth,  60  cents. 


T 


HE  ART  OF  AUTHORSHIP.  Literary  Reminis- 
cences.  Methods  of  Work,  and  Advice  to  Young  Beginners. 
Opinions  of  many  Leading  Authors  of  the  Day.  Compiled 
and  edited  by  George  Bainton.  i2mo.  Cloth,  untrimmed 
edges,  $1.25. 


New  York:    D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLETON  &   CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


"  TMs  work  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history-writing 
of  this  country." — St:  Louis  Post- Dispatch. 


COLONIAL    COURT-HOUSE. 
PHILADELPHIA,    1707. 


'BE  no  USEE  OLD  HIS- 
TORY OF  THE  UNITED 
STA  TES  AND  ITS  PEOPLE. 
For  Young  Americans.  By  Ed- 
ward Eggleston.  Richly  illus- 
trated with  350  Drawings,  75  Maps, 
etc.     Square  8vo.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

FROM  THE  PREFACE. 
The  present  work  is  meant,  in  tlie  first  instance,  for  the  young—  not  alone 
for  boys  and  girls,  but  for  young  men  and  women  who  have  yet  to  make 
themselves  familiar  with  the  more  important  features  of  their  country's 
history.  By  a  book  for  the  young  is  meant  one  in  which  the  author  studies  to 
make  his  statements  clear  and  explicit,  in  which  curious  and  picturesque  de- 
tails are  inserted,  and  in  which  the  writer  does  not  neglect  such  anecdotes  as 
lend  the  charm  of  a  human  and  personal  interest  to  the  broader  facts  of  the 
nation's  story.  That  history  is  often  tiresome  to  the  young  is  not  so  much 
the  fault  of  history  as  of  a  false  method  of  writing  by  which  one  contrives 
to  relate  events  without  sympathy  or  imagination,  without  narrative  connec- 
tion or  animation.  The  attempt  to  master  vague  and  general  records  of 
kiln-dried  facts  is  certain  to  beget  in  the  ordinary  reader  a  repulsion  frcm 
the  study  of  history— one  of  the  very  most  important  of  all  studies  for  its 
widening  influence  on  general  culture. 

"Fills  a  decided  gap  which  has  existed  for 
the  past  twenty  years  in  American  historical 
literature.  'l"he  work  is  admirably  planned 
and  executed,  and  will  at  once  t.ike  its  place  as 
a  standard  record  of  the  life,  growth,  and  de- 
velopment of  the  nation.  It  is  profusely  and 
beautifully  illustrated." — Boston  Transcript. 

"  The  book  in  its  new  dress  makes  a  much 
finer  appearance  than 
before,  and  will  be  wel- 
comed by  older  readers 

as  gladly  as  its  predeces-  Indian's  trap. 

sor  was  greeted  by  girls 

and  boys.  The  lavish  use  the  publishers  have  made  of  colored 
plates,  woodcuts,  and  photographic  reproductions,  gives  an  un- 
wonted piquancy  to  the  printed  page,  catching  the  eye  as  surely 
as  the  text  engages  the  mind." — Nitu  York  Critic. 

"The  author  writes  history  as  a  story:     It  can  'never  be 
less  than  that.      The  book  will   enlist  the  /hte«est  of  young 
people,  enlighten  their  understanding,  and  Vy  the^glow  of  its 
statements  fix  the  great   events  of  the  countiy  fiiuily  In   the^ 
GENERAL   PUTNAM.       mind."— iflw  Francisco  Bulletin. 


.^jrap^. 


New  York:    D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,   i,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


\      \ 


/ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara  College  Library 
Goleta^  California 


Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


20m-10,'56  (0225084)476 


